Ukuhlangana kwezimiso zokuvikela uhulumeni nezimiso zomphakathi ezivela kumthetho womthetho owenziwe ngomthetho kunikeza ukuhlangana okunzima. Ngakolunye uhlangothi kunezimo zesimiso somthetho-sisekelo esiqinile esivikela amacala angekho ekwahlulelweni, esisekelwe eSimisweni seshumi Nenye. Ngakolunye uhlangothi abantu abafuna ukulandisa nokukhokhwa ngokuphulwa komthetho-mthetho phakathi nophenyo lobugebengu, ukuqulwa, noma ukuboshwa. Lo mkhakha womthetho ufuna ukulinganisela okucophelelayo: ukulondoloza uhulumeni ngokulinganisela kuyilapho uqinisekisa ukuthi amalungelo avinjelwe nguMthetho-sisekelo awabi izithembiso eziyize. Emashumini ambalwa eminyaka adluleyo, izinkantolo, iziKhomishane, kanye nezazi ezingokomthetho ziye zalungisa ukulingana kwale ngokuhlola komthetho, ukucushwa kwezelulekwa kwezenkolo, nokugcinwa kwecala, ukwenza indawo eqinile kanye nokuphikisanayo yomthetho womthetho womthetho womphakathi womphakathi womphakathi womphakathi womphakathi.

Ukuqonda Ukuhlangana KoMbusi Wezwe

Isimiso sokuzimela uhulumeni singumthetho oyisisekelo waseMelika. Ivimbela abantu ukuba bamangalelwe ngokwesinqumo senkantolo yezwe ngaphandle kwemvume kahulumeni, noma enkantolo kahulumeni, ezimweni eziningi, enkantolo yombuso. Isisekelo sanamuhla siseSiphendulweni seshumi nambili, sagunyazwa ngo1795, okwakuba yimpendulo eqondile esinqumweni seNkantolo Ephakeme [FLT] [FL:0] [Cholm v. Georgia, 2.S 419 (1793). [[FLT:]] [[FLT]]

Umbhalo Wesichibiyelo Seshumi Nanye Nencazelo

ISichibiyelo seA11th Reformation siyanikeza: “Nakuba amandla okwahlulela e-United States ngeke athathwe ukuba adlulisele kunoma yisiphi isamba somthetho noma ukulingana, aqalwa noma amangalelwe omunye wezakhamuzi zase-United States yizakhamuzi zesinye iZwe, noma yizakhamuzi noma iZihlomo zanoma isiphi Isifundazwe.” Nakuba umbhalo ubonakala ulinganiselwe ukuba ufaneleke ngezakhamuzi zakhona, iNkantolo Ephakeme ifinyelele isamba ngokulingana nezakhamuzi zikahulumeni ngokwaso. [[FLT:] ku-v.[FLT][FLT] V[FL: 1]], U.S.1890), iNkantolo ikholelwa ukuthi ukufinyelela kwesimiso sokusebenza kungena kwesimiso esingenakuchazwa. [kukhulu ku-Foctive][5]

Indawo Yokuxhumana: Uhulumeni Nezikhulu

Umbuso uvikela izikhali hhayi nje kuphela kuhulumeni ngokwawo kodwa futhi uhlanganisa nezikhungo zesifundazwe ezibhekwa “izikhali zikahulumeni.” Ukunquma ukuthi into ethile iyafaneleka njengengalo kahulumeni kuhilela ukuhlaziya izici ezifana necala lemali likahulumeni lokwahlulela nesilinganiso sokulawula kwezwe. Nokho, ukuvikela akuzivikeli izikhulu ezithile zikahulumeni ngokuzenzakalela. Izihluthulelo ezimelene nezikhulu ezithile eziphethe [[FLT: 0] amandla ombuso avame ukuphathwa njengesuti emalini lombuso ngokwawo futhi kanjalo uvinjelwe. Ngokungafani, amasuntswana nezikhulu awenziwa ngokwawo [FFLD] [FFFF:3] ngenxa yemali, nakuba ezinye izinto ezizingafanele ukuvikela.

Izimfuneko Zomphakathi ESigabeni Sokwahlulela Ngesigebengu

Amasuntswana ahlobene namalungelo omthetho womthetho ahlobene kakhulu namagebengu ahlanganisa ukuzisholo ngaphansi 42 U.S. . . . 1983, okuvumela abantu ukuba bamangalelwe uhulumeni nohulumeni wendawo ngenxa yokwephulwa komthetho-mthetho noma amalungelo ombuso. Okunye okuvamile kuvela ngaphansi Brivens v. Ama-mamps [Azimed Angaziwa [, 403 U.S. 38871], okunikeza ikhambiso elifanayo ngokumelene nomthetho womthetho womthetho. Lokhu kukhuluma ngezindlela eziningi zokuziphatha okubi, kuhlanganise namandla amakhulu phakathi nokuboshwa, ukukholisa okungalungi, ukuphenywa okunga umthetho, ukungavunyelwe umthetho, nokungagunyaziwe, nokungahlolwangawenziwe ngokomthetho, nokungathathiwe nezokwelapha okudinga isidingo seze emajele.

Izinhlobo Eziyinhloko Zobulungisa Besigebengu Zithi

  • Amandla athathayo: athi ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo sesine sokuboshwa kobudlova ngokungenangqondo noma ukusetshenziswa kwamandla abulalayo. Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme Graham v. Connor, 490 U.S. 386 (19989), sithola ukuthi iziphakamiso ezinjalo kumelwe zihlolwe ngaphansi kwendinganiso enengqondo.
  • Ukuboshwa Okugcwele Ukushushiswa: Abantu ababoshwa ngaphandle kwesizathu noma ukuquliswa izinhloso ezimbi bangagwetshwa ngaphansi kuka 76 1983. Inkantolo Thompson v. Clark, 596 U.S.__222), yacacisa izici ezidingekile ukuze kusungulwe ukumangalelwa okubi.
  • Uphatho Lwempi Yakho Engalungile nokuphucwa Kwemithetho: Ukwehluleka ngabashushisi ukuveza ubufakazi bokuqamba, njengoba kufunwa Brady v. Maryland, 373 U.S. 83], kungaholela ekubekeni icala lomphakathi uma kuphumela ekuvumeni okungalungile.
  • Imibono ye-Plosement: Abantu ababoshwe bangaletha izikhangiso ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo seNguqulo sesishiyagalombili sesijeziso sonya nesobungavamile, kuhlanganise nokunganakekelwa kahle kwezokwelapha, izimo ezingahlanzekile, nokusetshenziswa ngokweqile kokuvalelwa udwa.
  • Ukuveza nokuphatha: Ukuvikela u-Claus ophukayo okulinganayo okusekelwe ngokohlanga noma kwezinye izici ezivikelekile kungabangela ukunyuswa kwesudi zomphakathi, ngokuvamile kuncike ebufakazini obungokwezibalo bezindlela zokuhlukanisa.

Ukuhlangana: Ukulinganisela Ubukhosi Nokulandisa

Ingxabano engokomthetho eyinhloko iphakama lapho ummangaleli oqavile ezama ukumangalela umbuso noma izikhulu zakhe ngenxa yezenzo zobulungisa. Izifunda zivame ukucela uhulumeni ogonyelwe ukuba axoshe amacala anjalo, zigomele ngokuthi ngeke amangalelwe ngaphandle kwemvume yazo. Nokho, amapesenti amaningana abekwe kahle namathuluzi emfundiso avumela ukuba aqhubeke, ngisho nakubadlali bakahulumeni.

[[Umthetho:0] Exte Young[[[Umthetho:1] Imfundiso

Enye yezimfundiso eziphawuleka kakhulu yile [FLT] Ex ee Young [[FLT]] imfundiso, eqanjwe ngecala leNkantolo Ephakeme ngo-1908]. Icala leNkantolo ePhakeme lithiwa ngecala leNkantolo ePhakeme inxenye yeYear [[, 209 U.S (1999) U.[08]. Lemfundiso ivumela ukugqekeza izikhulu zezikhulu, ukuphula umthetho kazwe, ukuvala imvume eqhubekayo yokukhokhwa kwemali yezelelwa. [FLT:][FYK]

Ukuncishiswa Kombuso

Enye i-epatrad iphakama lapho i-Congress ihlose ukuvikela uhulumeni ngokusemthethweni. INkantolo Ephakeme, i-Seminole Friest of Florida v. Florida, 517 U.S.1996), ikholelwa ukuthi i-Congress ingamelana nokuvikelwa kwesimiso sombuso ngokusemthethweni kuphela lapho isebenza ngokusemthethweni emandleni amandla ayo ngaphansi kwesigaba 5 seSigqi se-Dintshi. Lokhu kusho ukuthi imithetho eminingi ye-ocestern efuna ukubeka ityala emalungelweni emithetho. [ngesibonelo, [FFLFF:] [2] [FFOL:] [FOL:3] [3] [3], lapho kutholakala i-Asvolution [3], kuye kwathiwe izikhulu zendawo futhi akusebenzi kwe-couthornverse.[5] [act:[aseAdt] [ase,[ase-Admy] [ase.] [ances] [ase-a

Izwe Elinemisebe Eyingozi

Izwe liye lakhipha izenzo zokuzisholo ngezenzo ezivumela abantu ukuba badlulise icala ngezindlela ezilinganiselwe, bafake izikebhe ezimayelana nokulimala kanye nezimfuneko ezithile eziqondile. Kumthetho womthetho wesigebengu, ezinye izifunda ziye zanikeza imithetho yokuthi ukuvikela izingozi ezithile ngenxa yokusho okuthile, njengokuvalelwa ejele okungalungile, ukunikeza indlela yokukhokha impoqo.

Indima Yokungahlangani Okufanelekayo

Nakuba ihlukile ekuvikeleni komthetho wokuzivikela komthetho, ukuzivikela okungakholekiyo ngokuvamile] nokufakwa kwesudi zomthetho womthetho. Ukuvikeleka okufanelekile kuvikela izikhulu zikahulumeni emandleni engozi yomphakathi ngaphandle kokuba ukuziphatha kwazo “kwakhiwe ngokusemthethweni noma umthetho - sisekelo owephula amalungelo umuntu onengqondo ayezokwazi" ( H’HOW. Fitzind[], 457], U.S 800 (19982). Lokhu kuvikela kutholakala ukuze kubekwe izikhulu ezisekwe emalungelweni azo. Abagxeki abakwaziyo ukuvikela izikhulu eziziphatha ngendlela engafanele, kuyilapho abavikeli befuna ukugcinwa okusemthethweni. Izenzakalo zokwahlulela zamuva nezingagunyaza ukuvuselelwe ekuvuselweni kwemithetho ekwayo, ikakhulukazi ekuvuselweni kwembusweni kwecala, ukuvusekuswe ekuphaka i-potistion.

Izinqolobane Eziyinhloko: Ingxenye Ka - 1983 Nezimbali

42 U.S.C. נ 1983 ne State Accors

Ingxenye 1983 iyimoto eyinhloko yokuletha amalungelo angokwesizwe ngokumelene nombuso nezikhulu zendawo. Inikeza imbangela yokuthatha isinyathelo “yokuncishwa kwanoma imaphi amalungelo, amalungelo, noma ukugonyelwa okugunyazwe nguMthetho-sisekelo nemithetho” ngaphansi kombala wombuso. Nokho, izintambo zokuvikela izikhali ezizimele zilandela imibuso ngaphansi kuka 76 1983. Inkantolo Ephakeme . iMichigan Department of State Police , 491], U.S 58 (1999), ikholelwa ukuthi “amadodana” awakho ngaphansi kwe-69. Lokhu kusho ukuthi izikhulu zingafakwa emdlalweni wazodwa, intengo yemali ihlala ivikelekile kakhulu. Ukubuyisa ngokuqondile esimweni, ukuncika kwe-pane ye-uni noma i-orbigractia ehlangene.

Izenzo Zemibhede Nezikhulu Zombuso

Kubaphathi bamazwe abahileleke ekwahluleleni kobugebengu, ikhambi lezemthetho linikeza imbangela eqondile yomsebenzi ngaphansi koMthetho-sisekelo. Ngokungafani no-1934, Brivens[ isambatho] asizona izidalwa zemithetho kodwa zishiwo ngokwezokwahlulela. INkantolo Ephakeme, eminyakeni yamuva, ilinganisela kakhulu ukwanda kwemithi ye-Bictns[[FLT:], amakhambiza, ukwenqaba ukubona imoswomu omusha walezozinto (]]] izizukig. v , 02017]). Lokhu kuye kwayenza i-ededeti ye-othromethi yezegwegwegwegwesi yezeze izigeqe, noma izikhulu zezo zezomthetho zezomthetho zezezezezezomthetho ezithi.

Intuthuko Yamuva Nezinqumo Zenkantolo Ephakeme

Ukumiswa kwezindawo ezingokomthetho ezingqubuzaneni zezimiso zokuzivikela ezizimele nobugebengu kuye kwalolongwa izinqumo eziningana eziphawulekayo phakathi namashumi amabili eminyaka adlule.

Ukuhlangana Kwezikhulu Zamajele Asembusweni

Ku Prison Litigation Reform Act (PLRA) Amacala, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yaziqinisa njalo izikhuselo zokuzivikela kobukhosi ezisezweni. Ngokwesibonelo, i-Coleman v. i-Tollefson[, 575 U.S. 532], iNkantolo yasebenzisa izimfuneko eziqinile zeziboshwa eziletha amalungelo embangweni, kuhlanganise nemfuneko yokuthi i-Platffsss trains awervective transstionssss transftiggcons. Nakuba kungenjalo imingcele esebenza ngokuvikela ekuzibonomo.

Ukumiswa Kwe - stamente I - Immunton Nemoto

INkantolo iphinde yahlola ukuthi inkantolo ifuna ukulinyazwa yini ngenxa yokuhlola okungekho emthethweni noma ukuquleka. Alden v. Maine, 577 U.S. 706 (1999), iNkantolo yaqinisekisa ukuthi ukuvikelwa kwesimiso sokuzivikela kuyasebenza enkantolo yombuso kanye nasenkantolo kahulumeni, ngisho nasekumangaleni okungaphansi komthetho kahulumeni. Lokhu kusho ukuthi abathathi-thenwa nge-athonti abanakukwazi ukuvimbela ukuzivikela ngokufaka inkantolo yenkantolo kahulumeni. Isinqumo savala ngokuphumelelayo i-ethonsi yecala elilodwa elisebenzayo enkantolo yesifunda amazwe ngokuqondile.

Ukuthambekela Kwezinkantolo Eziphansi Muva

Ezinkantolo eziphansi zikahulumeni, kuye kwaba nokuqaphela okukhulayo kwesidingo sokulinganisela ukuvikeleka nokulandisa. Ezinye izinkantolo zesifunda bezizimisele kakhulu ukuthola ukuthi izifunda zinesimiso esiyekelelayo ngemithetho yazo noma ukuthi expacee Young[ imfundiso ivumela inkululeko ebanzi ngokumelene namaphoyisa asebenza ngezimiso noma ukuziphatha okubi komshushisi. Icala elihilela ukuboshwa kwabantu abaningi phakathi nokubhikishwa, njengalabo abalandela ukubulawa kukaGeorge Floyd, liye lavivinya lemingcele, ngezinkantolo ezikhipha iziyalo zokuqalisa ngokumelene nezikhulu zikahulumeni kuyilapho zilondoloza ukuvikelwa kwezwe ngokwalo.

Izinguquko Ezingokomthetho Ezisezingeni LoMbuso

Izifundazwe eziningi ziye zamisa izinguquko zokuvikela uhulumeni ngokwengxenye ekunqandeni amasudi omthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho. Ngokwesibonelo, uMthetho we-Public Provicess [ wokuzivikela kwezinye iziphakamiso ezimelene neziphathimandla zomphakathi, kuyilapho i-California Governments Isho ukuthi uMthetho uvumela amasudus ukuba aqaphele izimfuneko ezithile. Lezinguquko zilinganiselwa ngokuvamile ngezimiso ezilimazayo kanye nezimiso ezimfushane zokulinganisela, kodwa zimelela indlela ye-octragmial enikeza amakhambiselo ngaphandle kokuvikela isimilo ngokuphelele.

Ukukhandlwa Kwezinguquko Zobulungisa Besigebengu

Ukungezwani okuqhubekayo phakathi kobukhosi nokulandisa kunemiphumela emikhulu ekushintshweni komthetho womthetho wobugebengu. Abameleli baphikisa ngokuthi isimiso samanje sishiya izisulu eziningi zokwephulwa komthetho-mthetho ngaphandle kokuziphindisela, ngoba ulwelwelo oluqinile nolufanelekile lwezokuzivikela ludala umngcele ongenakuncishiswa. Ngokwesibonelo, umuntu olahlwa ngokungeyikho ngecala ngenxa yokungalungi komthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho owephula umthetho angase angakwazi ukukhokha. Ngokufanayo, izisulu zonya lwamaphoyisa zingabuyisa amaphoyisa amancane kuphela anezimpahla ezilinganiselwe, kuyilapho inxusa elisebenzisa inxusa likahulumeni lingasenakukwazi ukuvikela ukuzivikela.

Ithonya Elingokwezibalo Ngamalungelo Omphakathi

Ukucwaninga kwezinhlangano ezinjenge- National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers [NACDL] kubonise ukuthi izisu zempumelelo zomphakathi ngokumelene nezindawo zokwahlulela ngokungemthetho kuyinto engavamile. Imininingwane ye-Bureau of Justice Statistic Statistics ibonisa ukuthi bangaphansi kwa 5% ye 76 1983 bathi ngokumelene nabadlali bamazwe abazabalaza ukuqulwa, futhi abaningi bakhishwa esigabeni esifushayeni esifushayeni sokwahlulela ezikhungweni zokuvikela. Lokhu kushukumisela ukuba kuthathe isinyathelo somthetho ekwahluleleni i-brogated noma ukuzivikela okuncane kwesimiso sikahulumeni emalungelweni esizwe.

Izimfuneko Zokuguqula Izwe

Kumanje kuneziphakamiso eziningana zenguquko:

  • Ukukhishwa koMbusi weSizwe weMithetho yoMthetho-sisekelo: Ezinye izazi zomthetho ziphikisa ngokuthi iSishaya-mthetho kufanele sisebenzise isiqephu saso sokuphoqelela isihlanu ukuze sidlulise umthetho ocacile owehlulayo wesimiso sokuzivikela sombuso somthetho-mthetho we-1998 ngokusekelwe ekuphulweni komthetho-mthetho-sisekelo. Umthetho-mthetho onjalo ungabekela inselele, kodwa ungadlula uma ubekwe ngokulinganiselwe.
  • Ukuhlanganiswa kwe Imfundiso ye-Ex e Young Inkantolo ingandisa ukutholakala kwempumuzo engadlulisiwe nje kuphela ukubopha okuqhubekayo kodwa futhi naleyo engenzeka ibuye ibuye, inikeze ikhambi elibanzi lokuziphatha okubi kwezimiso.
  • I-'State-'Foot''State-Tort's Reformations:[ Amazwe angazilahla ngokwawo isivikelo ezigabani ezithile zomthetho wokwahlulela kobugebengu, ikakhulukazi ukumangalelwa ngecala, ukuboshwa, nokukhohliswa okungamanga. Ezinye izifundazwe kakade sezisungule amabhodi okukhokhwa kubantu abasusiwe.
  • Ukubekwa kwe-Immunity efanelekayo: Nakuba ihlukile ekuvikelekeni kobubusi, izakhi ezifanelekayo zokuzivikela ezifweni. Izinkinga zikhona. Imibuso eminingi iye yamisa imithetho evimbela ukuvinjelwa okufanelekayo njengesivikelo enkantolo kahulumeni, futhi kuye kwahlongozwa umthetho ofanayo kuhulumeni okhona.

Isiqondiso Esiwusizo Kwabathile Nezothisha

Kubafundisi nabafundi bomthetho-mthetho, ukuqonda ukuhlangana kwezimiso zokuzivikela ezimele nomthetho womthetho womthetho kudinga ukuhlawuliswa kwezingqimba zomthetho eziningi. Abamangalelwa akumelwe bahlole kuphela ukuthi ummangalelwa ungowombuso, wezwe, noma umdlali wezwe kodwa futhi ukuthi lowo ofuna umonakalo, impumuzo engathiwe, noma zombili. Uhlu olulandelayo lungasiza ekuqondiseni lezi zindaba:

  1. Imelela ummangalelwa: ingabe ngumbuso, inxusa likahulumeni, isikhulu sikahulumeni esisesikhundleni esingokomthetho, noma isikhulu esisemfundweni ngamunye?
  2. [ I-metamme odaliweyo wafunwa: Ukulimala kwe-monetary kuvela ku-move ngokuvamile kuvinjelwa ngaphandle kokuba kusetshenziswe okuhlukile; ukukhululeka kokukhululeka kungenzeka ngaphansi Ukungakhomba kwengxenye yeYena [.]
  3. Seck ye-pareter: Ingabe umbuso udlulise isenzo setort noma omunye umthetho ovimbela ukuvinjelwa kwendaba ethile?
  4. Unyuselo olungokomthetho: Ukhona umthetho kahulumeni owenzelwe ukuzivikela okusemthethweni ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo seshumi nane? Izibonelo zihlanganisa i-ADA nesihloko IX, kodwa hhayi 763 ngokwayo.
  5. isho ukuthi umuntu ngamunye unamandla: Ngisho noma umbuso ugonyiwe, isikhulu ngasinye singamangalelwa ngaphansi kuka 76 1983, ngaphansi kwezinga lokuzivikela elifanelekayo.

Isiphetho: Ukulinganisela Okuncane Ngaphansi Kokucindezela Okuqhubekayo

Ukuvumelana kwemfundiso phakathi komthetho wokuvikela ubukhosi nezindlela zobugebengu zokwephula umthetho kuveza ukulwa okukhulu kokwenza uhulumeni uvumelane namalungelo abantu. ISichibiyelo se - 11th Sichibiyelo siqinisekisa ukuthi imibuso ingasingatha izindaba zayo ngaphandle kosongo olungapheli lwezikhangiso zikahulumeni, kodwa lezozivikeleko azinakuba yisivikelo sokusetshenziswa kabi komthetho-sisekelo. Ngokuhlukanisa okunjengo u-Ex yeye Young , ukuhlanganisa i-bugroba, kanye ne-odola, isimiso somthetho siqophekwe ngaphandle kwezindlela zokulandisa. Nokho, lezi zihlala zincane, nezisulu eziningi zokuziphatha okubi, ukuqiniseka okungalungile, noma ukungancishiniwe emajele zizithole zingenayo.

Njengoba ingxoxo yesizwe ngoshintsho lobulungisa bezomthetho ikhula, indima yokuvikela kobukhosi esubeni lokubusa cishe izoqhubeka iguquka. Izinkantolo zizobizwa ukuba zilungise imingcele yokuvikeleka kombuso ngokukhanyiselwa izimo ezintsha eziyiqiniso, kuyilapho izishaya-mthetho zingakhetha ukulinganisela noma ukwandisa amalungiselelo ahlukene. Kunoma ubani ohamba kulendawo cishe njengomfundi, uthisha, ummeli, noma ummeli () ukuyiqonda ngokuphelele yonke imithetho engokwesiko kanye nokungahambisani kwazo kubalulekile. Umgomo oyinhloko uhlala njalo: ukuqinisekisa ukuthi isimiso sobukhosi sikahulumeni asibanqandeli ubulungisa kulabo abamalungelo abo engokomthetho aye aphucwalwe umthetho womthetho womthetho.

[[Umthetho:0] Imithombo:[[[Umthetho:1]