Indwangu engokomthetho ye-United States iboshelwe ngemicu emibili ebalulekile kodwa ngezinye izikhathi engqubuzanayo: inqubo efanele nezindlela zokuvikela ukunqanda ukuhlukana. Inqubo iqinisekisa ukuphathwa ngokufanele ngesimiso sokwahlulela, iqinisekisa ukuthi akekho umuntu ophucwa ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla engenazo izinqubo ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho. Umthetho wobandlululo, ngakolunye uhlangothi, uzama ukuvimbela ukuphathwa okungafanelekile okusekelwe ezicini ezinjengesizwe, ubulili, ubulili, noma ukukhubazeka. Uma le zindawo zihlangene, imibuzo eyinkimbinkimbi engokomthetho iphakamayo ukuthi isivikelo se-procedrodial eqinile iwastruction ivikela amaqembu futhi ukuthi amalungelo angaphansi kwemithetho asebenza ngendlela engaqondakali. Ukuqonda lemjaho esemthethweni, abenzi besimiso, nabasekeli bemithetho, noma abameleli besimiso esingekhona nje isithembiso kodwa kuyindlela yokuziqhuba.

Ukuqonda Inqubo Efanele

Inqubo efanelekile ingumthetho-sisekelo osekelwe ezinzibeni zesihlanu nezeshumi nane, ezivimbela uhulumeni ukuba unciphe noma yimuphi umuntu wokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho. Lesimiso sisebenza ngezimfundiso ezimbili ezihlukene kodwa ezihlobene: inqubo efanelekile nenqubo efanelekile.

Inqubo ejwayelekile

Inqubo efanelekile idinga ukuba uhulumeni alandele izinqubo ezilungile ngaphambi kokususa izithakazelo eziyisisekelo zomuntu. Kudinga isaziso kanye nethuba lokuzwakala ngesikhathi esinengqondo nangendlela enengqondo. INkantolo Ephakeme yase-U.S. ephethe i- Matthews v. U-Eldridge[ wasungula uvivinyo olulinganiselayo oluthwesa isithakazelo somuntu siqu, ingozi yokuncishwa kwezimiso ezikhona, futhi isithakazelo sikahulumeni sempumelelo yezombuso. Loluhlelo luqinisekisa ukuthi umfundi uxoshwa esikoleni somphakathi, umsizi wezenhlalakahle ulahlekelwa izinzuzo, noma umsizi owenziwe i-parlevere uthola isivikelo esiqinile. Umqondo ovamile usebenza ngokulinganayo yonke imfanelo yohulumeni.

Inqubo Engeyona Inkinga

Inqubo efanelekile eyisisekelo ivikela amalungelo athile ayisisekelo ekungeneleni kukahulumeni, kungakhathaliseki izinqubo ezisetshenziswayo. Lamalungelo ahlanganisa umshado, ukuzala, ukuzala umntwana, nokuzibusa komzimba. INkantolo Ephakeme Griswold v.Connecticut[ (655]) yaqaphela ilungelo elingokomthetho lokufihla imfihlo, kamuva elaba isisekelo se ] Roe v. Wadev [7773]) futhi [FLT:] Oberge b. Hods[FLT][FLD:5] (2020) inqubo efanelekile ebangela ukuphikisana nomthetho wezenzipho ngaphandle kokugxeka.

Isimo Sobandlululo

Umthetho wobandlululo ukhuluma ngempatho ehlukile esekelwe ekuhlanganyeleni kwekilasi elivikelwe. Izimiso ze-Federal njenge-Sihlomo VII of the Civil Rights Act ka-1946, amaMelika anoMthetho wokukhubazeka (ADA), i-Age Discivation in Act (ADEA), ne-Fair Howards Act enqabela ukucwasana emsebenzini, ezindaweni zokuhlala, ezifundisa, nasezindaweni zomphakathi. Ukucwasa imingcele ingahlukaniswa ngezinhlobo eziningana:

  • [[FLT: 0] Ukwelapha okungathandeki: Ukucwaswa ngokungathi ngokungathi nganakiwe lapho umuntu ephathwa kahle ngenxa yesici esivikelekile. Ngokwesibonelo, ukwenqaba ukuqasha umfaki wesicelo ofanelekayo ngenxa yohlanga lwabo.
  • [[QTL:0] Impatho ehlukanisayo: i-Procies noma imikhuba ebonakala ingathathi-hlangothi kodwa ngokungenakulinganiswa ilimaza iqembu elivikelweyo, ngaphandle kokulunga kwezebhizinisi okwanele. Imiswe ku-Grigs v. u-Co.[197], ithonya elihlukanisayo alidingi ubufakazi benhloso ye-discrinary.
  • I-Harars:[ Ukuziphatha kokungahlwithwa okusekelwe esicini esivikelwe esinzima kakhulu noma esisakazeke yonke indawo kudala umsebenzi ophambene noma indawo yemfundo.
  • [[[I-FLT:0] Isijeziso:[ ukujezisa umuntu ngokucwasa okuphikisayo noma ukuhlanganyela enqubweni yokusola.

Amakilasi avikelwe aye akhula ngokuhamba kwesikhathi ngomthetho nangencazelo yokwahlulela. Umthetho kaFederal manje uhlanganisa uhlanga, ibala, inkolo, ubulili (kuhlanganise ukukhulelwa, indlela yobulili, kanye nokuzichaza kwabobulili), umsuka wesizwe, iminyaka engu-40 nangaphezulu, ukukhubazeka, nokwaziswa kwezakhi zofuzo. Ezinye zivikela ngokwengeziwe izinga lomshado, isikhundla sokuhlangenwe nakho, kanye nokuzivumela kocansi ngisho nalapho umthetho kahulumeni ungacacile.

Inqubo Efanele Nokucwaswa: Umsebenzi Ongokomthetho

Ukuhlanganiswa kwenqubo efanele nomthetho wobandlululo kubonakala kakhulu lapho abantu bethi baphucwa ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla ngendlela engaphelele nje kuphela kodwa futhi engcoliswe ubandlululo. Izenzakalo eziningana ezingokomlando zibonisa lokhu kudlala.

Iphuzu Eliyisihluthulelo

  • [FLT] Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954): INkantolo Ephakeme yakholelwa ukuthi izikole zomphakathi ezidukiswe ngokohlanga zaphula i-Claus Esivikelo esilinganayo seSigqizo seshumi nane leMinyaka Edlulele. Nakuba kungesona inqubo efanele yenqubo yezenqubo ngo-chemisc sigame angeke athethelelwe nganoma yiliphi icala. Isinqumo sagcizelela ukuthi amalungelo okulinganisa angaphansi kwenani angadlula ukugcinwa.
  • ROE v. Icala [[FLT]] Inkantolo yathola ilungelo lokukhipha isisu phakathi kwenqubo efaneleyo edingayo yesikhathi sokuba wedwa. Lendaba ibonisa ukuthi inqubo efanele ingavikela kanjani ukulawulwa kokuzala emithethweni yombuso ethinta abesifazane ngokungalingani.
  • Shashington v. Davis (6): INkantolo yanquma ukuthi umthetho noma inkambiso enemiphumela yobuhlanga engalinganiyo ayiphuli ubufakazi obulinganayo benhloso yokungaqondisi. Lesi sinqumo sidala ibhaxa eliphezulu lokucwaswa komthetho-mthetho, ngokuvamile siphoqelela abakho abachazi izinkolelo eziphikisayo ezithiwe esikhundleni. Inqubo efanelekile ibonakala lapho abamangalelwa bephikisa ukuthi balandela izinqubo ezifanele, ngisho noma imiphumela ingekho.
  • Batson v. Kentucky (1986): INkantolo yakholelwa ukuthi ukusebenzisa komshushisi izinselele zokukhulula abakhokhi abasekelwe emdlalweni kuphula inqubo elinganayo yokuvikela u-Claus. Lokhu kuhlanganisa inqubo ehambisanayo ekhetha amajaji ekukhetheni izinqumo ezimelene nokuhlukana, kuqinisekisa ukuthi i-umqambi wejaji akangcoliswanga ubandlululo.
  • Essinger v. Liberty Mutunity [2003] Isinqumo esiphansi senkantolo esibonisa indlela inqubo efanelekile yokulalela ingancitshiswa ngayo uma abenzi besinqumo bebonisa ukucwasana okusobala. Icala lihilela ukucwaswa kokukhubazeka lapho isikhulu esizwayo sibopha umqashi.

Lezi zimo zembula ukushuba komnyombo: inqubo yezindinganiso ezifanele izinqubo ezilungile, kuyilapho umthetho omelene nokungavumelani uhlose imiphumela eqeda ukungalingani. Ngezinye izikhathi lezi zimo ezimbili ziyavumelana, kodwa ngokuvamile izivikelo zemiklamo zingafihla noma ziqhubekisele phambili ubandlululo.

Izimboni Zesafomethi

UKhomishane umise imithetho eminingi ehlanganisa ukugcinwa kwenqubo nokugcinwa kwemithetho emelene nokungavumelani. Ngokwesibonelo, iSihlokwana VI soMthetho waMalungelo ka-1964 sinqabela ukucwaswa kwabamukela izimali zikahulumeni futhi sidinga izinhlangano ukuba zimise izinqubo zokuhlola izikhalo. I-Uncimenti Yomsebenzi Wobukhazikhazikhazi (EOC) ihlela izikhalo zokucwaswa kwenqubo yokulawula ezihlanganisa isaziso, ukuhlola, nethuba lokuthola i-oralationation Active Act. Uma i-EOC ithola imbangela enengqondo, ingakhombisa umqashi, kodwa iqembu elikhokhisayo liphinde ligcine ilungelo lokufaka icala lasese. Lesi simiso somthetho siklamo siklanywe ukulinganisela ngokulunga nokulunga, kodwa abagxeki bephikisa ukuthi ukulibala nokuthola imali kuseyiphikisa okuningi okuthisa yinqubo yabo.

Ukudideka Kwamaqembu Abhekene Nemingcele

Ukuhlangana kwenqubo efanele nobandlululo kunemiphumela emikhulu emiphakathini ehluzekile, kuhlanganise nezinhlanga ezincane, abesifazane, abantu abakhubazekile, nabantu abathola imali encane. Kuvela imiphumela eminingana eyisisekelo:

Ukufinyelela Ekulungeni

Inqubo efanelekile yokuzimela iqinisekisa kuphela uma abantu bekwazi ukufinyelela isimiso ngendlela enenjongo. Ukucwasana kudala imigoqo: izimali ezilinganiselwe, ukuntuleka komthetho wokusimelela, imingcele yolimi, nokwesaba ukuziphindisela. Ukuhlola kubonisa ukuthi i-seligints j(izinto ezizimelelayo) labo abazimelelayo (izinto ezimbi kakhulu) ekulawuleni nasekuqulweni kwenkantolo. Uma isisebenzi esiphansi sidutshulwa ngenxa yezizathu zokungaqondisi, ilungelo lokuzwa lisuke liyize. INhlangano ye-American Bar icele ukuba yandise usizo olungokomthetho nezindlela zokwenziwa zibe lula, kodwa imali ihlale ingenamali.

Izicupho Ezingokwesayensi

Eminye imithetho yokucwasa imisebenzi ibeka imithetho eqinile edinga ukunqandwa abantu abangaqaphile. Ngokwesibonelo, i-Vit VII ifuna ukumangalelwa kobandlululo ukuze lubekwe phakathi nezinsuku ezingu - 180 zesenzo esishiwoyo (izinsuku ezingu - 300 ezisezifundazweni ezinezikhundla ezifanele). Lelifasitela elimfushane, lihlangene nesidingo sokudambisa amakhambi okulawula, linganqoba iziphakamiso ezihloniphekile. Abamangalelwa abalahlekelwayo ngisho nosuku olulodwa bavinjelwa ukukhokha i-'inkonzo. Nakuba lemithetho ifeza umgomo ongokomthetho wokuphenyanisa umsebenzi ngokushesha, bangalimaza ngokungenakungenakho ukufinyelela iseluleko esingokomthetho ngokushesha. Ngokuphindwayo amaqembu abhekene nokucwasana.

Inqubo Yokucwasa Nokusetshenziswa Kwalo

Uma ubandlululo luqaliswe ezimisweni zezinhlangano, ngisho nezinqumo ezingenaphutha zingaqhubekisela phambili ukungalingani. Ngokwesibonelo, inqubo yamaphoyisa yangaphakathi yokuyala ingalandela zonke inqubo ezifaneleyo zenqubo //nothice, ukuzwa, ukudluliswa kwecala (kodwa uma izinga eliyinhloko lokuziphatha lisetshenziswa ngokwehlukile kubaphathi bezinhlanga ezihlukahlukene, isimiso sisaveza imiphumela ewubandlululo. Izinkantolo ziye zazama ukusingatha impikiswano ezinjalo ngoba inqubo efanele ibhekise kakhulu ezicabeni ezithile kunokubheka imiklamo ye-aggreate. INkantolo Ephakeme isebenzisa i- Mclekleks. [1987]) inqaba ukulahla isijeziso sokufa esisekelwe ebufakazini obungoko ngokokwahlulwa kwezinhlanga, izimpawu zokuncintisana. Inkantolo ephethe imingceleni engokomthetho yokuhlasela ngokuhlasela.

Izinselele Eziphoqelelwayo

Naphezu kokumiswa okuqinile okungokomthetho, ukugcinwa kwamalungelo afanele ezimweni zobandlululo kubhekene nezithiyo ezinkulu.

Ama - bia Okwahlulela

Ubandlululo oluphelele phakathi kwamajaji namajaji lungaphazamisa ukusebenza kwenqubo efanele. Ukucwaninga kubonisa ukuthi abahluleli abanakugonyelwa ekuqondeni okungaqondakaliyo ngohlanga, ubulili, kanye nesimo sezenhlalo. Ezicaleni zobandlululo, abahluleli bangase bakholelwe ukuthi izinqubo ezifanele zilandelwa uma ummangalelwa eyinhlangano ehlelwe kahle noma uma ummangalelwa eqenjini elivamile. INkantolo yeSifunda ivume ukuthi ubandlululo lungaphula ilungelo lenkantolo engakhethi, kodwa ibonise ukuthi inzima. Abanye basho ukuthi ukwamukela ukuqeqeshwa okungacacile kweqembu labahluleli, kodwa imiphumela ayiqiniseki.

Ukungafani Kwemithombo Yemali

Ukucwasa kuyabiza. Izinhlangano ezinkulu noma izinhlangano zikahulumeni ziyakwazi ukufinyelela kubameli, ofakazi abangochwepheshe, nochwepheshe be-savvy. Abakhohlisi, ikakhulukazi abantu ngabanye, ngokuvamile abanayo imithombo efanayo. Ukutholakala kwenkokhelo yemali egunyazayo kuyasiza, kodwa abameli abaningi bamacala esikrini ngokucophelela, bashiya abashone benobufakazi obubuthakathaka noma izindleko zemali eziphansi ngaphandle kokumele. EOC] izibalo zaminyaka yonke [[ zibonisa ukuthi amacala amacala azimele ayanda, kodwa isilinganiso esiwumphumela wezinqumo ezifanele sehla ngokwengxenye ngenxa yemali egciniwe.

Ukumelana Nezinhlangano

Ezinye izikhungo zimelana nokusetshenziswa kwezimiso ezikhuthaza ukulingana nokufanele. Ngokwesibonelo, izikole zomphakathi zingahlehlisa ukuthuthukisa izinqubo zokuyala naphezu kobufakazi bokungalingani kobuhlanga ezinsweni. Abaqashi bangaqhubeka besebenzisa imikhuba yokuqasha eveza imiphumela yokukhipha ubandlululo ngenxa yokuthi ingcono noma ithonya. Ukunqoba lokhu kumelana kudinga ukushintshwa okuqhubekayo, isenzo somthetho, noma ukucindezela komphakathi. I-Civil Rights Divil Division of the Department [[ ifeza indima eyisihluthulelo, kodwa ukuguqula kwayo ukugcinwa kwemithetho nge-ofisi ngayinye, yenza ukuguquguquka.

Impikiswano Engenanjongo

Inselele enkulu isemgomweni weNkantolo Ephakeme owenzelwe ukucwasa komthetho-mfantu. Njengoba kuphawulwe ku- Shashington v. Davis, umkhangisi wezomthetho kumelwe abonise ukuthi uhulumeni ohlose ukuhlukanisa, hhayi nje ukuthi umthetho waba nomphumela wobandlululo. Lendinganiso inzima kakhulu ukuhlangabezana ngoba inhloso ayivamile ukuvezwa kakhulu. Izazi eziningi ziphikisa ukuthi inqubo efanele yokuvimbela isenzo sikahulumeni esiwuhluphayo kufanele idlulise imithetho eveza imiphumela engenabulungisa, engalinganiyo, futhi engenabufakazi bokucwasana. Nokho, iNkantolo iyenqaba njalo ukwandisa inqubo efanelekile noma ukuvikela okungakhombayo, ishiya ukuhlukanisa njengemiphumela eyinhloko yesimiso sokuhlasela inqubo. Kodwa imingcele yemithetho kahulumeni ingabeka inselele ekubekeni imingcele yemithetho yemithetho yemithetho.

Izindaba Ezivusayo Neziyalezo Zesikhathi Esizayo

Ukuhlangana kwenqubo efanele nokucwasana kuyaqhubeka kushintsha ngentuthuko entsha engokomthetho nezinguquko zezezentengiselwano. Ubuchwepheshe bunikeza izinselele ezintsha: ukwenza izinqumo ze-algorithm ekuqasheni, ekutholeni izindlu, nokwahlulela kobugebengu kungabhebhethekisa ubandlululo lapho kuvela ngaphandle kobuzwe. Abameleli benqubo elindelekileyo babiza ukuba kube sobala nelungelo lokuncintisana nezinqumo ezizenzekelayo, kodwa izinkantolo ziqala ukuxazulula lezindaba. Ngokufanayo, izimpikiswano eziqhubekayo zokuvuma, amalungelo ophakanyiswa kwemithetho, kanye namalungelo okuvota zonke zihilela imibuzo eyisisekelo ngokuphathelene nokungalingani okungalawuleki okungaqondani okungaqondana nokungahlanga okungaphansi kokuncintisana nokungahlalwa ngokulunga komthetho.

“ Inqubo elindelekile isinika izinqubo, kodwa hhayi ukulingana. Ukuze sifinyelele ukulingana, ngezinye izikhathi kumelwe sibheke ngalé kwezinqubo bese sibuza ukuthi ubani ozwayo nothuliswayo.” — Iphazanyiswe enkulumweni kaMahluleli uThur Good Marshall.

Esinye isiqondiso esithembisayo ukusetshenziswa okukhulisweyo kwe- “procedture contrust" izakhiwo eziseminyangweni yokuqondisa nasezinkantolo. Lezizici zigcizelela ukungathathi hlangothi, inhlonipho, nokwethembeka, nezwi enkantolo. Ukucwaninga kusikisela ukuthi uma abantu bebheka izinqubo njengezilungile / okungenamiphumela, bavame kakhulu ukuhambisana nomthetho nezinhlangano ezithembekile. Kumaqembu aphansi aye abhekana nokungahlonishwa nobandlululo, ubulungisa obungokwesiko bungaba yithuluzi elinamandla lokuvala igebe phakathi kwenqubo efanele nezindinganiso zokungavumelani nokwethemba.

Isiphetho

Ukuhlangana kwenqubo efanele nobandlululo kwembula kokubili amandla nobuthakathaka besimiso somthetho waseMelika. Nakuba uMthetho-sisekelo nezimiso kunikeza igebe eliqinile lesivikelo, ukugcinwa kwezindawo, ukuhlukaniswa kwempahla, nokuchazwa kokwahlulela kuvame ukushiya abantu abahluliwe bengenawo amakhambi asebenzayo. Isithembiso senqubo efanele − sokuthi wonke umuntu uyothola ukuphathwa ngokufanele phambi komthetho. (* akakwazi ukuqapheleka ngokugcwele ngaphandle kokusingatha izakhiwo zokuvimbela imingcele eziwulula. Izinguquko ezingokomthetho, ukusekela ukusekela okusemthethweni, ukuqeqeshwa okusobala, nokusetshenziswa okukhudlulwa kokuhlaziya imiphumela eqinile kuyizinyathelo ezidingekayo zonke. Ekugcineni, isimiso somthetho esibheka kokubili inqubo efanelekile nokulinganayo kumelwe siqaphele ukuthi izimiso ezilungile zodwa azifanele ukuba zinganele uma isimiso ngokwaso sincitshiswa ngokucwa ngokunyelwa. Ngokuhlola ngokuthuthukisa ngokushelelanisa ngokushelela kulezi zimiso.