Isingeniso: Ukungenela Kwezikhungo Zokusebenzelana Nokuhlukana Kwamandla

Isakhiwo sikahulumeni waseMelika sisekelwe ezinsikeni ezimbili eziyisisekelo: uhulumeni ophethe kanye nokuhlukaniswa kwamagunya. Nakuba zifundwa ngokwehlukana njalo, lezizimiso ezimbili zisebenza ngokubambisana, zihlela indlela imithetho ebekwe ngayo, iphoqelelwe, futhi ichazwe. Féderalism[ ukwandisa amandla phakathi kukahulumeni wezwe omkhulu nohulumeni abaningi. [ukuhlukanisa imibuso [[FLT]]] ihlukanisa igunya phakathi kwemithetho ye-Genectictic, isikhulu, namagatsha okwahlulela ezingeni lesizwe. Ukuqonda indlela uhulumeni obulawula imibuso eMelika ephelele ibaluleke ngayo ukuzuza ukubusa. Lesihloko sihlola impande, ukuziphendukela komlando, nezokuhlobana kwale mpilo, ukunikeza ukuhlola okubanzi, ukuhlanganisa nakunikeza noma yimuphi uthisha bezenkampathi yeze yeze yezombangazwe.

Kuyini Ukwanda Kwezizwe?

Phakathi, uhulumeni uyisisekelo sokubusa lapho amandla ehlukaniswa khona ngokomthetho-mthetho phakathi kwegunya eliyinhloko nezinhlangano zezombangazwe ezihlangene − e-United States, laba bangohulumeni bezwe. Ngokungafani nesimiso sobunye lapho wonke amandla ehlala kuhulumeni ophakathi, noma ukuhlangana lapho imibuso igcina khona cishe lonke igunya, i-unistism idala indawo ephakathi evumela ubunye nomehluko.

UMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. wamisa lengxenye ngamalungiselelo amaningana ayinhloko. I-Article I, Ingxenye 8 ibala amandla oMkhandlu, kuhlanganise namandla okukhokha intela, ukulawula itekthimente, nokumemezela impi. [ Isichibiyeli seSichibiyelo [ sifaka ngokuqondile wonke amagunya angaphathiswanga uhulumeni kahulumeni noma enqatshelwe emibuso ngokwayo noma kubantu. Lomthetho wesisekelo wakha ubukhosi obumbaxabane obumbaxakile obuye baqala ngesikhathi esithile ngenqubo yokwahlulela nangezombangazwe.

Izazi - mlando nososayensi bezombangazwe baveza izigaba eziningana zobuzwe baseMelika:

  • I-Federalism (c. 1789-1933): Ivame ukuchazwa ngokuthi "umbuso wombuso wekhekheshi," lenkathi yagcizelela imingcele ecacile phakathi kwemithwalo yemfanelo kahulumeni nombuso. Uhulumeni wezwe wagxila ezindabeni zakwamanye amazwe, ekuvikeleni, nasezentengiselwano zamazwe, kuyilapho amazwe ayesingatha izindaba eziningi zasekhaya njengemfundo, impilo, kanye nemithetho yendawo.
  • Cofestivative Federalism (c.-1960s):[ Ikhuthazwa ukuwohloka okukhulu kwezomnotho ne-New Deal, lesibonelo safiphaza imigqa phakathi kwemisebenzi kahulumeni nombuso. Uhulumeni wezwe walungiselela izimali neziqondiso zezinhlelo ezinikezwa uhulumeni, wadala "ikhekhekhe eliqinile" lemithwalo yemfanelo ehlanganyelwe.
  • I-New Federalism (c. 1970s-presenters): Kuqala noMongameli Richard Nixon futhi kuqhubeke nakubaphathi besikhathi esizayo, imizamo yokususa amagunya athile emuva ezindaweni iye yaguqula izimpikiswano zamanje. Iziphakamiso nezinhlangothi zivumela ukuvumelana okukhulu ekusebenziseni izinhlelo zikahulumeni.

Ukuqonda lezi zigaba kusisiza ukuba sichaze indlela uhulumeni ohlala uzivumelanisa ngayo nezinselele ezintsha, nokuthi ukujwayela lokho kuthinta ngayo ukulinganisela kwamandla phakathi kwamagatsha amathathu kahulumeni.

Ukuhlukana Kwamandla: Umsuka Nezakhiwo

Imfundiso yokwahlukana kwamagunya isekelwe kuyifilosofi yezombangazwe ekhanyiselwe, ikakhulukazi umsebenzi uMentesquieu ku uMoya woMthetho[. Abaqali baseMelika, ikakhulukazi uJames Madison, bafaka lomqondo kuMthetho-sisekelo njengesivikelo sokulwa nonya. [[FLT:] Federalist No. 51, Madevrence wabhala ngokudumile, "Izikhundla kumelwe zenziwe ukuba zilwe ekulweni nesifiso sokuvelela." Injongo yayiwukuqinisekisa ukuthi akukho gatsha elilodwa lingabusa abanye.

UMthetho - sisekelo uhlukanisa uhulumeni kahulumeni ube amagatsha amathathu alinganayo:

  • Igatsha elinophawu lwe-ligithe (Ingcebiso): Ekhiwe indlu yabameleli neSigele, leligatsha lenza imithetho, limemezela impi, lilawula ezentengiselwano, futhi lilawula izintambo zezikhwama.
  • Igatsha eliphethe (Article II):[[FLT] eliholwa nguMongameli, leligatsha limisa imithetho, liqhuba inkambiso yangaphandle, liyala amasosha, futhi limisa izikhulu zikahulumeni.
  • Jodicial Branch (Article III): INkantolo ePhakeme nezinkantolo eziphansi zikahulumeni zichaza imithetho, zibukeze ubukho bomthetho-sisekelo, futhi zixazulule izingxabano phakathi kwezifundazwe noma phakathi kukahulumeni nezifunda.

Igatsha ngalinye linamagunya ahlukene, kodwa isimiso se nama-ascheck avumela igatsha ngalinye ukuba lilinganisele amanye. Ngokwesibonelo, uMongameli angawukhipha umthetho odluliswa yi-Congress, kodwa uMkhandlu ungawudlulisa lowo nyaka nenani eliphindwe kathathu. ISigebengu siqinisekisa ukumiswa komongameli, futhi izinkantolo zingashaya imithetho njengengalawulwa.

Indlela Ubumbano Olukuthonya Ngayo Ukuhlukana Kwamandla

UFederalism akagcini ngokuhlukana kwemibuso − ithonya ngokunamandla indlela igatsha ngalinye elisebenza futhi lisebenzelane ngayo namanye. Ukuhlukana kwamandla phakathi kohulumeni bezwe nohulumeni kwenezela okunye ukuyinkimbinkimbi esimisweni esiyinkimbinkimbi kakade semishini eyinkimbinkimbi.

Igatsha Elingokomthetho Esimisoni Sikahulumeni

Igunya lomthetho likaKhomishane lilinganiselwe yisimiso samagunya ahlukene. Ngaphansi kombuso wombuso ombaxambili, uMkhandlu ungahlanganisa kuphela ezindaweni ezihlelwe ngokucacile ePhakathini I. Nokho, ukukhula kwe-socialism yomphakathi obambisanayo kwanwetshwa ngamandla abanzi ngencazelo ye [ Commerce Claus [[FLT]] kanye [[FLT]] ne-Fathernational Classiaste [FLTE. Namuhla, imithetho ye-ove iyakuyisusa imithetho lapho iphikisana, idala ukushukuma kwegunya nobukhosi bezwe. Ngasikhathi esifanayo, isho ukuthi amandla aphawulekayo emfundo yezemfundo yomkhaya, umthetho womkhaya, ne-Proastleast, okushoshosho ukuthi i-cercessss syment i-parceptions syment (inqulution:[FFF]]]4]]4]]4]

Igatsha Eliphethe Nezikhungo Zokulwela

Indima kaMongameli njengesikhulu ihlanganisa ukumisa imithetho kahulumeni, kodwa eminingi yaleyomithetho ifakwa ngezinhlangano zikahulumeni. Ngokwesibonelo, i-Nvironmental Protection Agency (EPA) imisa izindinganiso zokungcola, kodwa ihlela ukusebenzisa izinhlelo ezingokoqobo zokuvumela nokuphoqelela. Leli lungiselelo lokubambisana linikeza ithonya elibalulekile kuhulumeni, kodwa uMongameli uyaqhubeka ephethe amandla okuvimbela ukuxhaswa kwezimali zikahulumeni noma ukugcinwa kwamandla uma imibuso ihluleka ukuvumelana. Umbango ophakathi kwamandla embusweni wesikhulu nombuso we-EPROM (ENS) uye wabonakala kakhulu emashumini eminyaka amuva nje ezindaba zokuthunyelwa kwezindawo, ukumiswa kwensangubo yensangu, kanye nokunqandwa kwezempilo yomphakathi. INkakhulu yeNkakhulu yeze ingenakuphinde inqanyulwe ukukhipha ukukhipha ukukhipha umthetho wezelele kweze ezemidlalo. [F1][FFFFS] [FT]] [12] [3] [20]): [20]

Igatsha Lokwahlulela Nobuzwe

Ijaji likahulumeni, ikakhulukazi iNkantolo Ephakeme, inendima ebalulekile ekuchazeni imingcele phakathi kwamandla kahulumeni nombuso. Ngokuhlola kokwahlulela, iNkantolo inquma ukuthi imithetho kahulumeni idlula amandla eSishaya-mthetho akhahlisiwe noma ukuthi imithetho kahulumeni iphikisana nemithetho kahulumeni noma i-Constitution. Izehlakalo ezifana [[FLT][1]] MClulloch. Maryland[[[FLT][185]] [18] [18] i-isithikadengu ephawulo ngokomthetho wemithetho yemithetho yemithetho elawula ukuphakama kwemithetho kahulumeni ne-Geneyomthetho, kuyilapho [[FLT:][5] [i] ifaka inselele phakathi kwezehlulelo lamanzi, izigwebo ezikayo ezika kakhulu, futhi izwa yize izibophothi zemithetho ezilawulayo.

Amandla Ahlukene Negunya Lamanje

I-Federalism idala izigaba ezintathu zamagunya: ezihlanganisa izigaba zemibuso yombuso (umk., ifaka imali, iphatha ubudlelwane bangaphandle), intela ehlukeneyo [[, ukugcinwa kwemithetho, isakhiwo, izakhiwo zezindawo. Uma womabili amazinga okusebenza kukahulumeni, kumelwe ahlele u-'FLT, ukuqondisa ukuhwebelana kwezentengo). Ngokwesibonelo, intela yezwe neyahulumeni ihosho, kodwa ingahluka kwenye imibuso ehlangene. Imithetho inganezela intela ehlukeneyokuhleleka intela, kodwa i-RFFFF. [egston ewugunyaza imibuso ephakeme] [enye) egunyaza imibuso ehlukene yemithetho emisha (inkulu] [enye) emisha yemithetho elawula imibuso).[F]

Amasheke Nokulinganisela Esimisweni Somphakathi

Izivivinyo ezivamile nezilinganiswa phakathi kwamagatsha amathathu zincintiswa yiziphetho zikahulumeni. Ohulumeni bamazwe bangahlehlisa imingcele ngokuphambana nohulumeni ngemithetho ethile, ngokuqamba uKhongolose, noma benqabe ukusebenzisa izinhlelo zikahulumeni (isu elaziwayo ngokuthi "ukuhloba," nakuba umthetho - sisekelo wawo uncintiswane). UMongameli noMkhandlu bangathonya ngemali enemibandela. [[FLT] Imali enikezwayo edinga ukuthatha imithetho ethile. [i-FLT][FLT][FLT] Inkantolo inqabela ukuthi lezi zimo ziyazimela noma ziyavumelana. [FLT][1][FLT1] Inhlangano ye-Empectivencession.[FLT][FFF:2] [202], iNkamela ukuthi iNkamela iNkamela i-Mikhasime ukuthi i-ondhrensidensile inqaba ye-yonker.[icer) i-Active i-acer) i-A

Ukuhlola Izenzakalo Ezingokomlando Zokubusa Nokwehlukana Kwamandla

Ukuhweba Okusha Nenguquko Yomthetho - sisekelo

I-New Deal Agement ngaphansi kukaMongameli Franklin D. Roosevelt yandisa ngokuphawulekayo indima kahulumeni kahulumeni enqubweni yezomnotho. UKhomuko wamisa umthetho okhuphulayo njengeNational Industrial Receveation Act ne-Agricultural Survior Supreme Act, eyanika igatsha igunya elingenakulinganiswa kwezezimali. INkantolo ePhakathi Entsha inqanda izinhlelo eziningi zokuzilawula njengezedlula kakhulu iChunga likaChunganel Celacolaus, okwaholela ekuxazululeni impikiswano phakathi kweNkamelo neNkamelo. Lolumo lwezentengo yahlobisa icebo "lonsibonke-pack" lokuthuthukisa icebo lokuthuthukisa igatsha layo, ekugcineni, iNkantolo yashintsha ukuchazwa kwayo, futhi i-juuprud ngokomthetho wamandla ayo okuqala, futhi yavumela uMkhathi we-Congrescierst ukuba alawule noma imicimbi yezentengo yezentengo. Lezwe . Le nkathi ephakathi.[29] Icebo libonisa ukuthi ihlelwe

Inhlangano Yamalungelo Omphakathi Nokungenela Kwesifunda

Phakathi nawo-1950, ukulwela ukulingana kwezinhlanga kwahlolwa kwe-socialism kanye nokuhlukaniswa kwemibuso. Izifunda zaseNingizimu zasebenzisa imfundiso yamalungelo ezwe ukuze zithethelele ukuhlukaniswa kwesizwe futhi zimelane nemithetho kahulumeni yokukhipha izishayamthetho. Igatsha lezesivumelwano lasabela ngemithetho yemithetho enjengemithetho yeSivumelwano samaLungu sama-1964 neSivumelwano samaGawula se-Boodostion ka-1965, ebekwe ngaphansi kweSishaya-Phovisi se-Congresmenment Conacial Claus neSinyustription. Igatsha lesikhulu sezempathiwe, ngaphansi komongameli uKennedy noJohnson, lasebenzisa izikhundla zezikhulu zesizwe nezikhulu zesizwe ukuba zifake iziqondiso zenkantolo. Inkantolo ezindaweni ezihlangene kanye nomthetho wezwe lonke uhulumeni.[FLT.] Brown. I-B. i-B. i-presethi yegunya leze-mthetho womthetho womthetho lincitomentive.[F.[F.1]5] [196] [194]

Izinkinga Zangesikhathi Esidlule Ekusebenzelaneni Nohulumeni Nokuhlukana Kwamandla

Ukunakekela Impilo Nomthetho Wokunakekela Ongadunyiswa

I-Affordble Care Act (ACA) ka-2010 ilokhu iyisibonelo esiyinhloko sesikhathi esikhona sendlela uhulumeni olawulayo nokuhlukana kwemibuso. IsiKhomishane sadlulisa i-ACA ngaphansi kwezentengiselwano zayo ze-Claus nemibuso ekhokha intela. Igatsha eliphethe, ngoMnyango wezempilo neMinyango Yomuntu, lakhipha imithetho esebenzisa umthetho. Igatsha lokwahlulela lahileleka kakhulu: [[FLT:]NFIB v. Sebelius[FLY][F:1], iNkathi yeNkathi yeNhloko yentela kodwa yashaya iMidid njengentela efunekayo njenge-cerced. Lesinqumo esilondolozwe indima yezwe (intshisi) futhi ingenza i-Mdid. Ngokuqhubekayo, i-Micromest, i-Foctive [[2] i-Foctive.[2] izisekeliumkhaza yemikhankaso yemi yeze-hulumeni, i-ouhulumeni, i-od yeminye i-E.[20],

Ukushintsha Kwendawo Ezungezile Nokushintsha Kwesimo Sezulu

Umthetho wendawo ezungezile unikeza enye indawo lapho ubuzwe buthonya khona ukuhlukaniswa kwamagunya. I-Ceather Air Act ne-Green Water Act ivumela i-EPA ukuba ibeke izindinganiso zesizwe, kodwa isho njalo ukuthi isebenza futhi iqikelele. Uma i-EPA ihluleka ukuvumelana, i-EPA ingangena. Nokho, ukulawulwa kwemithetho ye-Trump kuholele imingcele yesimo sezulu eyaholela ekubekeni isilinganiso esiqinile sezindinganiso zezimoto ezindaweni ezithile, okubangela ukulawulwa kwezindawo zokukhipha imoto, ukunyakazisa i-a okuyaziwa ngokuthi [[FL: 0] i-asestude esekelwe ekuhlolweni kwe-'''''''iNkanto ephakeme'[FLTFOLT] njenge-ephathi. i-FFOR.[3] I-California, ngokwesibonelo, i-FFoffin arcensidet) ukubusa okungekho kumandla ahlukene amandla ahlukene (iphansinye) ukubusa).[4] I-E.[4] I-E.[4

Ukufuduka Nokucindezeleka Okubangelwa Uhulumeni

Ukungena eCampber ngokwesiko kuyi-automment eyigunya likahulumeni elikhethekile, kodwa izifundazwe ziye zafuna kakhulu ukufeza indima ethile, kodwa zifuna ngokubambisana nomthetho kahulumeni (njengase-SB 1070) noma ngokulinganisela ukubambisana (njengasemithethweni yase-California engcwele). INkantolo Ephakeme, Arizona v. United States[FLT] [202], ishaya amalungiselelo amaningana okufuduka kahulumeni okukhulula, iqinisekisa ukuphakama kwezwe. Nokho, ukuqondisa kwegatsha lokulawula ukugcinwa komthetho futhi kudala izingxabano. Ukuvinjelwa kokuhamba kwezokuthutha nokulawula iBhovisiswa kwezindawo kuye kwabekelwa inseka enkantolo, namajajingidi ezindaweni zomhlaba wonke. Lokhu kubonisa indlela enamandla yokusebenzisa izinkantolo zokubusa ze-odministra ezindaweni ezisebuthweni: ukuvimbela ukulwa kwe-R.

Ikusasa LobuFande Nokuhlukana Kwamandla

Njengoba i-United States ibhekene nezinselele zekhulu lama-21 ezinjengokushintsha kwesimo sezulu, ukusabela okuwumshayabhuqe, ukuhlelwa kokuhlakanipha okungeyondawo, nokungalingani kweholo, ukuhlangana phakathi kombuso wezwe nokuhlukaniswa kwemibuso kuzoqhubeka kuvela. Izimo eziningi ziyafaneleka ukuphawula:

  • Ukuhlukanisa kanye ne-Federalism: Ukuhlukana okujulile kwezombangazwe kuye kwaholela ekuqashelweni kwezimiso zombuso, kanye nemibuso ebomvu neluhlaza okwesibhakabhaka amukela izindlela zokuqhathanisa ukukhishwa kwezisu, amalungelo okuvota, ulawulo lwezibhamu, nemfundo. Lokhu kuhlukana kombuso kungandisa ubuzwe njengendlela yokuhlola ukushintsha kwenqubo yesizwe, kodwa futhi kufaka izingozi ekungaqiniseki okuqinile nokungaqiniseki okungokomthetho.
  • Isenzo sombuso sobuPhostoli no-Uniteral Action: Abameli abavela kuzo zombili izigaba baye basebenzisa kakhulu iziyalo zomphathi, i-tistranda, kanye nokumiswa kwezinhlangano ukuze kulungiswe isimiso ngaphandle koKhongolo. Ukumangalela koMbuso kuye kwaba yinqubo eyinhloko yokubekela lezenzo inselele, ukuguqula izinkantolo zikahulumeni zibe abakhokhi bokuphanga. Ukuhlukaniswa kwamandla anamandla . . . . . .Izenzo zokuhlukanisa amandla kanye nokuhlola kwezehlulelwa kwekomiti (nengxenye) manje ngokuvamile inesilinganiso sombuso.
  • Izentengiselwano ne-Chommerce Claus: Intengiselwano ye-inthanethi, imininingwane, kanye ne-inthanethi ephambanayo ye-computer ku-parsective menu, kuphakamisa imibuzo yokuthi umthetho kahulumeni ungayisula yini imithetho kahulumeni. UKhongolo luye lwazama ukudlulisa umthetho wemfihlo ogcwele, lushiye izimemezelo njengeCalifornia ukuze luqale imithetho yalo. Inkantolo ePhakathi ye-Organization ingadinga ukucacisa imingcele yegunya likahulumeni enkathini yonyaka.
  • Isinqumo sabeka imingcele ethile ezimweni zomjikelezo, kodwa izimo zesikhathi esizayo zingachaza imingcele. Lokhu kusetshenziswa kombuso wokusebenzisa amandla ukuze kuthonye isimiso sombuso kuyaqhubeka kwanda. [ INFIB[ Isinqumo sibeke imingcele ethile ezimweni zomjikelezo, kodwa izenzakalo zesikhathi esizayo zingachaza imingcele. Lokhu kuhilela ngokuqondile wonke amagatsha amathathu: izimo zezimali zombuso, isikhulu sinikeza iziphakamiso, futhi isikhulu sihlola umthetho waso.

Othisha nabafundi kumelwe bahlale benolwazi ngalezi zenzakalo. Ukuhlanganyela nemithombo eyinhloko enjenge- Consitution Anvocation nengqokotho yeNkantolo ePhakeme kubalulekile ukuze kuqonda ukuthi ukubusa kwezwe nokuhlukana kwemibuso kuvumelana kanjani nesikhathi.

Isiphetho

Ubuhlobo phakathi kwe-gunationalism nokuhlukaniswa kwemibuso abu--ase-ant."iyingxoxo ephilayo ebekwe eqenjini lomthetho-sisekelo we-United States. I-Federalism inikeza isigaba esiqinile segunya phakathi kohulumeni besizwe nohulumeni, kuyilapho ukuhlukaniswa kwemibuso kudala isigaba esiqondile phakathi kwamagatsha amathathu kahulumeni. Sibonke, sikha ulwembu oluyinkimbinkimbi lwezokuhlola nokulinganisela oluvimbela noma yimuphi umuntu ekutholeni amandla aphakeme kakhulu. Ngokufunda izibonelo ezingokomlando ezifana nenkathi ye-New Deal ne-gavilement neNkathi Yesizwe, nangokuhlaziya izindaba zamanje ezifana nokukhathalela impilo ezungezile, imingcele yendawo ezungezile, nokuthutha, sizuza ukwazisa okujulileyo ngokuthi lezizimiso zisebenza kanjani ekusebenzeni. Kunoma ubani ofuna ukuqonda uhulumeni waseMelika, ukuqaphela ukudlala phakathi kwezwe nemibuso ehlukene akuyona neze inkathi yezemfundo yezemfundo yezemfundo.