Isimiso Somthetho - sisekelo Sokuthola Amandla Alinganiselayo

Abaklami boMthetho-sisekelo wase-United States babhekana nenselele eyisisekelo: indlela yokwakha uhulumeni onamandla ngokwanele ukuba usebenze ngokuphumelelayo kuyilapho uvimbela ukuba ungabi nonya. Ikhambi labo kwakuyisimiso samagatsha ahlukene amathathu alinganayo, isigaba somthetho, isikhulu, nokwahlulela. Igatsha ngalinye lisebenza ngokwalo kodwa lihlangene namanye ngenxanxathela yokuhlola nokulinganisela. Loluhlelo, olucwengisiswe ngaphezu kwamakhulu amabili eminyaka, luhlala luyikhothasithasitha i-mfa lemibuso yaseMelika. Ukuqonda indima ehlukile kanye nezingxabano ezinamandla phakathi kwamagatsha amathathu akudingekile kubafundi bomphakathi kuphela kodwa nakuzo zonke izakhalo ezifuna ukuhileleka ngohulumeni wabo.

Igatsha Elingokomthetho: I - Engine - forming Yokwenza Imithetho

Imiswe yiSiphakamiso I soMthetho-sisekelo, igatsha lomthetho − elaziwa kangcono njengeSishaya-mthetho − iyindikimba eyinhloko yokwenza umthetho kahulumeni kahulumeni. Injongo yalo eyinhloko ukumelela intando yabantu, ngamabomu, futhi iguqulele lelosu ekwakhiweni komthetho. AmaFramers enza igatsha lokuqala elichazwe kuMthetho-sisekelo, libonisa inkolelo yawo yokuthi i-pactimenst kufanele ibe inamandla kakhulu futhi isondele kakhulu kubantu.

Izakhiwo ZaseBimeral Nemifanekiso

ISishaya-mthetho i-badaral, esinezindawo ezimbili ezihlukene: iSigele nendlu yabameleli. Lesi sakhiwo esimbaxa-mbili sasiwumkhiqizo weSiphakamiso esikhulu sokuhlehla ngo-1787, esaxazulula izingxabano phakathi kwezizwe ezinkulu nezincane ezimelelayo.

  • ISigele: Yakhiwe ngama-senator ayikhulu (ambili sifundazwe), iSigele saklanywa amaFramers ukuba abe umzimba owenziwe ngenkululeko, ozinzile. Abahlaziyi basebenzisa ama-gamende ayisithupha eminyaka, nesinye sezihlalo ezibekwayo sokukhetha njalo eminyakeni emibili. Lesi sakhiwo sivala izihlalo ezisheshayo ezithathelwe umphakathi, ezibavumela ukuba bagxile ezithakazelweni ezingokwesikhathi eside. ISihlalo siphethe futhi amandla akhethekile, kuhlanganise negunya lokuqinisekisa ukumiswa komongameli (amabhodi, amanxusa ombuso, amanxusa ombuso) kanye nokuxhumana nezivumelwano zegatsha.
  • Indlu yabameleli: Namalungu okuvota ahlukaniswa phakathi kwezifunda ezisekelwe kubantu, indlu ihloselwe ukuba ibe yigatsha eliseduze nabantu. Abameleli bakhonza amagama athatha iminyaka emibili kuphela, ababenza baphendule kakhulu ekushintsheni umzwelo womphakathi. Umthetho wemali ohlangene nenkokhelo.[1] ophakamisa izintela noma ogunyaza ukuyisebenzisa (indlu), umthetho owethula egumbini elingumthetho owengakhonzile izikhwama zikahulumeni.

Amandla Nemithwalo Yemfanelo: Okungaphezu Kokwenza Imithetho Nje

Nakuba ukwenza umthetho kungumsebenzi wegatsha lomthetho obonakala kakhulu, imithwalo yalo yemfanelo mikhulu futhi inamandla:

  • Ukwenza umthetho: Umkhandlu uveza, izimpikiswano, ukulungisa, nokuvota ezikweletini. Isivumelwano kumelwe sidlulise womabili amagumbi ngendlela efanayo futhi sisayinwe nguMongameli (noma unesimiso esinezintambo ezinkulu eziphindwe ka-3-3 kulezi zindlu) ukuze ube umthetho. Inqubo yomthetho ihilela ukuzwa okukhulu, izintambo, izinkulumo eziphezulu, izimpikiswano zaphansi, namakomiti engqungquthela engquthelene (a ngenhloso nesimiso esibonisa ngokucacile esiklanyelwe ukwakha ukuvumelana nokuvimbela umthetho osheshayo.
  • Intela: UKhongolo-kahulumeni luphethe amandla esikhwama semali (igunya elikhethekile lokukhokha intela ye-levy), ukuboleka imali, nemali efanelekile kahulumeni. Lomandla anika uKhongolo-kamende izikhali ezinkulu phezu kwemisebenzi yegatsha eliphethe. Unyaka ngamunye, uMkhandlu mawudlulise izimali zokuhlelwa kwemali kanye nokuhlelwa kwezinhlelo zomthetho ukuze uqoqe izinhlelo zikahulumeni; ukuhluleka ukwenza kanjalo kungaphumela ekuvinjeni kukahulumeni.
  • Ukuqapha nophenyo: Ngamakomiti ayo, uMkhandlu uhlola imisebenzi yezinhlangano eziphethe, uhlola ukuziphatha okubi, futhi ufaka icala ekufuneni ukulandisa. Amakomiti angaphoqelela ofakazi abangaphansi kwempoqo nezincwadi, abophe ubufakazi, futhi atuse ukubekwa icala lokudelelwa. Lo msebenzi wokwengamela uyinhlolo ebucayi emandleni abaphathi.
  • I-presence: Ilungu ngalinye lesiKhongolose lisebenza njengokuxhumana okuqondile phakathi kukahulumeni kahulumeni kahulumeni nezakhamuzi zesifundazwe sabo. Basingatha umsebenzi wezendaba, baphendule ezinkathazweni ezihlangene, futhi basekele izithakazelo zendawo enkambisweni yezwe.

Igatsha Eliphethe: Lishaya Imithetho

ISiphakamiso II samandla okubusa kuMongameli oyedwa wase-United States. UMongameli uyinhloko kahulumeni nomphathi kahulumeni, obekwe icala lokufeza imithetho edluliswa ngokwethembeka yiSishaya-mthetho. Igatsha eliphethe lihlanganisa futhi uMongameli oyisekela, iKhabhinethi, kanye nenhlangano enkulu yezinhlangano neminyango kahulumeni.

UMongameli: Indima Ehlukahlukene

UMongameli ugqoka izigqoko eziningi, ngasinye esinamandla ahlukile omthetho - sisekelo nawusizo:

  • uMyaleli-iNqanda-ngeSikhathi: UMongameli unomyalo omkhulu phezu kweMikhosi ehlomile yase-U.S. i-Afrequence. Nakuba kunguMkhandlu kuphela ongamemezela impi, uMongameli angathumela amabutho, ukuhlasela kwezempi, necebo eliqondile lezempi. ISigqibo seMpi sonyaka ka-1937 sezama ukulinganisela amandla kaMongameli ekulweni kwempi ngaphandle kokuvunyelwa, kodwa umbano phakathi kwenyathelo lezempi nesongameli somthetho uhlala uwumkhankankqesho ophilayo.
  • Isivumelwano se-Chief Diplomat: uMongameli uqondisa inkambiso yakwamanye amazwe, umisa amanxusa (ongaphansi kokuqinisekiswa kweSigele), uxoxa ngezivumelwano (ezidinga imvume yeSigele sesithathu sesigele), kanye nokuziphatha okuvumelana nezinye izizwe. Izivumelwano zokulawula izifundazwe, ezingadingi ukunqandwa kwegebe, ziye zaba ithuluzi elivamile kuMongameli ukuvala i-proglockmentment proption ezindabeni zakwamanye amazwe.
  • Isiqondisi-Sikhundla sombuso: Njengenhloko yegatsha eliphethe, uMongameli wengamela izisebenzi eziqhubekayo zikahulumeni zezisebenzi ezivamile ezingaphezu kwezigidi ezimbili. UMongameli uqinisekisa ukuthi imithetho kahulumeni i-"enziwe ngokwethembeka," ikhipha iziyalo zezikhulu zokuqondisa izenzo zezinhlangano, futhi ingasusa izikhulu eziningi zegatsha eziphethe ngokuthanda.
  • Umholi ophethe: uMongameli uthonya uhlelo lwemithetho ngokufaka izikweletu zemali, ukuhambisa iZwe le-Union, nokunxusa amalungu e-Congress. I-veto .Ikhono lokunqaba umthetho odluliswa yiSishaya-Mkhandlu (ithuluzi elinamandla). Umbuso ungalawula i-veto kuphela nge-3, okuyivelakancane kakhulu.
  • Ukuphelela kwezwe:[ UMongameli usebenza njengobuso obungokomfanekiso besizwe, wenza imisebenzi yemikhosi futhi umelela izindinganiso nezithakazelo zaseMelika ezweni.

IKhabhinethi Nombuso WamaButho Ombuso Ozimele

IKhabhinethi inesici sikaMongameli ophethe kanye nezinhloko zeminyango ephethe engu-15 (njengezwe, iNdoda, iMali, Ubulungisa, nemfundo). Laba onobhala bamiswa nguMongameli futhi baqinisekiswa iSigele. Ngaphansi kweKhabhinethi kusehlelwe izinhlangano ezizimele, izikhomishane ezizimele, nezinkampani zikahulumeni. Nakuba lezinhlangano zisebenza ngaphansi kwegunya likaMongameli, abaningi banenkululeko eyinkimbinkimbi, bakha ukulinganisela phakathi kokuziphendulela kwezombangazwe nobuchwepheshe.

Izikhundla eziqanjiwe zeKhabhinethi zihlanganisa:

  • UNobhala Wezwe (izindaba zakwamanye amazwe)
  • Unobhala Wezokuzivikela (ukulondeka kwempi nesizwe)
  • UNobhala weNdawo Yezimali (isimiso sezomnotho nesezimali)
  • UJenene WaseAttorney (Ingxenye Yobulungisa, ukugcinwa komthetho)
  • UNobhala Wezempilo Nezinkonzo Zabantu (Impilo Yomphakathi, IMedicaid, IMedicaid)

Igatsha Lokwahlulela: Ukuhumusha Umthetho - sisekelo

ISiphakamiso III simisa igatsha lokwahlulela, elichaza umthetho futhi liqinisekisa ukuthi amagatsha emithetho nezikhulu asebenza ngokuvumelana nemingcele engokomthetho. Ijaji likahulumeni liqondiswa iNkantolo Ephakeme yase-United States, inkantolo yokugcina ethatha isinqumo. Ngezansi iNkantolo ePhakeme izinkantolo eziphansi zikahulumeni, kuhlanganise nezinkantolo zesifunda zecala nezinkantolo zesifunda.

Izakhiwo Zamankantolo AseFederal

Isimiso senkantolo kahulumeni sinegunya:

  • Inkantolo engaphezulu: izikhombisi eziyisishiyagalolunye (kuhlanganise noMahluleli Omunye) zisebenza izinqumo zokuphila konke, ziqinisekisa ukuzimela ekucindezeleni kwezombangazwe. INkantolo izwa izikhalo ezivela ezinkantolo zesifunda futhi, ezicabeni ezingavamile, izimpikiswano zokulawula imibuso phakathi kwezizwe. Ikhetha cishe inombolo eyodwa kuphela kwezinkulungwane zezicelo ezithatha igama ngalinye, okuphakamisa imibuzo yemithetho yezomthetho-software noma lapho izinkantolo eziphansi zihlukene khona ngempikiswano.
  • Izinkantolo Zesifunda Zokudlulisa Amacala: Kunezifunda eziyi 13 (izifunda zesifunda, i-D.C. izifunda, ne-Federal zuzu). Lezi zinkantolo zihlola izinqumo ezivela ezinkantolo zesifunda nakubusa kwezinhlangano ze-othority. Izinqumo zazo zibopha phakathi kwezifunda futhi zivame ukwakha umthetho wesizwe kuze kube yilapho iNkantolo Ephakeme ixazulula izingxabano.
  • Izinkantolo zezesifunda: Izifunda zikahulumeni 94 zikhonza njengezinkantolo zokuqulwa kwamacala omphakathi nawomthetho. Izinkantolo zesigodi zizwa ubufakazi, ukuqulwa kwecala, nezinqumo. Zilapho kuqalwa khona ukuqulwa kwecala kwamacala kahulumeni.

Amandla Okubukeza Ukwahlulela

Amandla abaluleke kakhulu egatsha lokwahlulela ukubukeza kokwahlulela, .igunya lokumemezela imithetho nezenzo zezikhulu ngokungekho emthethweni. Nakuba lingashiwonga ngokucacile eMthethweni, lombuso wamiswa ngokuqinile yisici seNkantolo Ephakeme (1803) yesinqumo [iNkantolo Ephakeme] ku-. UMadison. UMacard John Marshall wabhala ukuthi "kugcizelela isifunda nesibopho somnyango wokwahlulela ukusho ukuthi umthetho uyini" Ngokuhlola kokwahlulela, izinkantolo zisebenza njengenhlolo lokugcina kwamanye amagatsha, ziqinisekisa ukuthi akukho mthetho noma isenzo esiphula umthetho.

Imisebenzi Ngalé Kokuchaza Umthetho

  • Ukuvikela Amalungelo Omuntu Ngamunye: Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zigcizelela iSigqebhezana samalungelo abantu nezinye isivikelo somthetho-sisekelo. Amacala ahilela inkululeko yokukhuluma, inkululeko engokwenkolo, inqubo efanele, isivikelo esilinganayo, namalungelo obugebengu ngokuvamile afinyelela eNkantolo Ephakeme.
  • Impikiswano:[ izinkantolo zixazulula izingxabano phakathi kwezifundazwe, phakathi kukahulumeni nezifunda, naphakathi kwamaqembu azimele uma umthetho kahulumeni ukhona.
  • Isigwebo nomthetho: emacaleni obugebengu, izinkantolo zikhipha izigwebo; emacaleni omphakathi, zikhipha isijeziso noma iziyalo zezindaba. Ijaji futhi lengamele ukuphatha ubulungisa ngemithetho yenqubo.

Isimiso Esishintshashintshayo Sezingcingo Nokulinganisela

Ukuhlakanipha komklamo womthetho-sisekelo akukho nje ekuhlukaniseni amagunya kodwa ekwenzeni igatsha ngalinye libe isheke kwezinye. Isifiso senziwa ukulwa nesifiso sokuvelela, njengoba uJames Madison abhala ku . Ukukhetha uNo. 51[. Izinqubo eziyinhloko zihlanganisa:

  • Iziphetho ezisemthethweni kumphathi: Izikhondla-Mkhandlu zingadlula amaveto (isithathu esibili sazo zombili izindlu); ziqinisekise noma zenqabe ukumiswa kwezikhulu nezivumelwano (i-Senate); zisusa uMongameli nezinye izikhulu zikahulumeni (Indlu, izikhulu zezezigele); zilawule uhlelo lwemali; futhi zihlole izenzo zesikhulu.
  • Iziphetho ze-ligislative eHlawulweni lokwahlulela: Izikhongozelo zikahulumeni zikha izinkantolo eziphansi, zimise inani lamajaji eNkantolo Ephakeme, futhi zingaveza izinqumo zomthetho-mthetho zokwaphula izinqumo. ISigele siqinisekisa ukumiswa komthetho-mthetho.
  • [ Izibalo ezisebenzayo esigungwini somthetho:[ UMongameli angakhipha izikweletu; abize uMkhandlu ngeseqeleni esikhethekile; futhi aphoqelele (noma enqaba ukuphoqelelwa), nakuba ukwenqaba ukwenza umthetho kungamema inselele engokomthetho noma ukujezisa.
  • Izibalo zezehlulelo: UMongameli ubeka amajaji kahulumeni (ongaphansi kokugunyazwa kweSigele); anganikeza ukuthethelelwa nokubuyiselwa ebugebengwini bukahulumeni; futhi angathonya ijaji ngezikhundla zokwahlulela zokwahlulela.
  • [ Iziphetho zemithetho esemthethweni esiGungwini somthetho: Izinkantolo zingamemezela imithetho engekho ngokwemithetho ngokuhlola kokwahlulela. Ijaji futhi lichaza incazelo yemithetho, ngezinye izikhathi ngezindlela ezibhuntshisa inhloso yomthetho.
  • Iziphetho ze-judicicial kumphathi: Izinkantolo zingagadla iziyalo zezikhulu nezenzo ezidlula igunya lomthetho-sisekelo noma lomthetho; zingaphoqelela izikhulu eziphethe ukuba zithathe isinyathelo (noma zigweme ukwenza) ngemithetho; futhi zingabukeza ukufaneleka kwezimiso zegatsha eliphethe.

Lesimiso sokuqondisana sidala amandla lapho kungekho gatsha elingabusa khona abanye ngokungenasiphelo. Izingxabano zenzakale njengalezo ezingaphezulu kwelungelo eliphethe, ubukhulu bemibuso yempi kamongameli, noma ukumiswa komthetho-mthetho wemithetho `inqumo engokombangazwe', impikiswano engokomthetho, futhi, ekugcineni, imithetho yeNkantolo Ephakeme. Isimiso asinayo ingxabano; ukuxabana kwe-octrick kanye ne-interbranch kuvamile. Nokho lokho kucindezeleka kuyisici, hhayi isici esiwumthetho, esiklanyelelwe ukuhlisa ushintsho oluqinile nokucindezela.

Izingxabano Zezwe Ezingokoqobo Nezibonelo Zanamuhla

Uma sisebenza, imingcele ephakathi kwamagatsha ayicacile ngaso sonke isikhathi. Cabangela lezi zilinganiso ezilandelayo ezikhona:

  • Imithetho yokukhipha iziyalezo v. inhloso yomthetho: abameli bavame ukusebenzisa iziyalo eziphetheyo ukuze baqhubekisele phambili imigomo yenkambiso uma uMkhandlu uhluleka ukwenza. Abaphikisi baphikisa lenqubo yomthetho. Ngezinye izikhathi izinkantolo zishaya iziyalezo ezidlula igunya likaMongameli noma ukungqubuzana nomthetho okhona.
  • Inqubo yokuqinisekisa yeNkantolo ePhakeme kakhulu emashumini eminyaka amuva nje, ibonisa indima yeSigele njengesehlo kumphathi nakumphathi wejaji. Ukwenqaba kuka 2016 ukuvala izindlebe kuMerrick Garland kanye nokuqinisekisa okusheshayo kuka-Amy Coney Barrett ngo-2020 kuqokomisa indlela izibalo ze-statical ezimisa ngayo izinqubo zomthetho-siseko.
  • Imithetho ivala: Lapho isishaya-mthetho noMongameli bengenakuvumelana ngezindleko zokukhipha izicelo, ukushiyeka kwezimali kanye nohulumeni ngokwengxenye kuvala. Lezizenzakalo zibonisa amandla esikhwama semali kanye nemiphumela yempi yokubulala.
  • [[FLT: 0] Ukubukeza umthetho ophikisanayo: Izenzakalo zezwe ezibonisa izenzakalo ezinjenge bergefell v. Hodges (2015, ukugunyaza ukushada okufanayo kwe-ye-exxpression) kanye ne-Dobs v. Jackson’s Health Organization [, (20222], ukubuyisela umthetho wokukhipha isisu [inkantolo ephakeme]] ibonisa indlela iNkathi elungisa ngayo imishayo yesizwe, ngezinye izikhathi izama ukugumbula nokushaya izivumelwano zemithetho.

Isiphetho: Ukunconywa Okuhlala Njalo Kwamandla Ahlukene

Amagatsha amathathu kahulumeni wase-U.S. ayeklanyelwe ukubambisana kodwa ukuhlola nokulinganisela. Lamandla okuxabana ngenhloso acabangela, avikela amalungelo amancane, futhi aqapha ngokufakwa kwamandla kunoma iyiphi inhlangano eyodwa. Abafundi, othisha, kanye nezakhamuzi ezibophayo, ukuqonda indima ehlukile yeSishaya-Mkhandlu, uMongameli, kanye nohulumeni wejaji wejaji elihlangene phakathi kwabo, futhi i-jacan shoctal messs shortry. Ukufunda ngemvelaphi yale nqubo, akusebenzi kahle njalo, futhi kungakhungatheki ezikhathini zenhlekelele. Kodwa njengoba abasunguli beqonda, ukuphumelela akubalulekile kakhulu kunenkululeko. Ukwehlukana kwamandla kuhlala kunezingamandla aphumelela kakhulu ngokumelene nokuhlasela kobushiqela. Ukufunda okwengeziwe ngemvelaphi yale nqubo, ungahlola [FFFFORGeneticsC] [F] [5] noma umbiko we-E.[5] kulokhu kuviniselwa kumthetho we-E.]