Table of Contents

Imvelaphi Engokomlando Yenqubo Efanele

Isimiso sokuthi ukuqulwa kwamacala angokomthetho kumelwe kube nokulunga nokuthi abantu banelungelo lokuqaphela nokuzwa ngaphambi kokuba umbuso ubaphuce ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla sinezimpande ezijulile ezingokomlando. Nakuba inkulumo ethi "inqubo emisiwe yomthetho" yaqala ukuvela emithethweni yamaNgisi ekhulwini le-14, umqondo oyisisekelo wavela ngaphambili kakhulu ezinhlanganweni eziningi.

Isisekelo Sasendulo: IGreece NeRoma

E-Athene yasendulo, isimiso somthetho esihlanganisiwe sezici zobuqotho obuthandwayo ngomqondo we epiechia [ukubekiwe], esavumela abahluleli ukuba basebenzise ubulungisa ngaphandle kwemithetho eqinile. Izakhamuzi ezimangalelwe ngomthetho zazinamathuba okuveza iziphetho phambi komthetho owaziwayo owaziwa ngokuthi dikasteria[. Umthetho waseRoma, ikakhulukazi ngengxenye ye [[FLT:] CORP] uJulris Civilist wahlanganiswa ngaphansi koMbusi Justinian, wasungula izimiso zobulungisa ezingokwemvelo ezathonya ukucabanga ngokomthetho eYurophu. Umthetho wamaRoma ushintsho lwengxenye yesinye isisekelo sesisekelo.[FT]

IMagna Carta (1215): Inkathi Yenguquko

IMagna Carta, evaliwe eRunnymede, ihlala ingenye yezincwadi ezikhonjiwe kakhulu emlandweni ofanele. Isahluko 39 somthetho sisekelo wokuqala samemezela ukuthi akukho muntu okhululekile oboshelwa, osuswe, noma obekwe umthetho "ngaphandle kokwahlulelwa okungokomthetho kontanga yakhe noma umthetho wezwe." Lolulimi olubhalwe ngokuqondile luyaziswe ngokulandelana kwenqubo efanele. Nakuba ekuqaleni iMagna Carta isebenza kuphela emabhamini, izimiso zayo zanwetshwa kancane kancane emiphakathini eminingi yamakhulu eminyaka alandelana. Ibhukwana lasungula umqondo ogxekayo wokuthi amandla aphethe kumelwe asebenze emikhawulweni engokomthetho, umqondo ohlanganisa ukumiswa komthetho wanamuhla.

Intuthuko Yomthetho Ovamile WaseNgilandi

Ngemva kweMagna Carta, izinkantolo zaseNgilandi nePhalamende kwaqhubeka nokucwenga izivikelo ze-procedal. Ukuvikelwa Kwesokudla [1628] kwabekela inselele ukuboshwa okungenamthetho nokuboleka ngenkani, ukuqinisa imfuneko yokwahlulela okungokomthetho. [i-Habeas Corpus Act [1679]) [i-FLT:3] yaqinisa isivikelo ekuboshweni okungavunyelwe umthetho ngokufuna iziphathimandla ukuba zilethe iziboshwa phambi kwezinkantolo futhi zithethelele iziboshwa zazo. Abahluleli bomthetho abavamile baseNgilandi, ikakhulukazi uSir Edward Coke, bachaza "umthetho wezwe" ukusho izinqubo ezingokomthetho kunokuba kusungulwe umthetho. Lezi zenzakalo zakhankathiso zeze izikhulu zeze izikhulu zezwe laseNyakatho nezwe lonke elaseNyaka.

Izimo ZaseMelika Zokuvumelana Nezwe

Abenzi bamakoloni baseMelika babefuna amalungelo omthetho wesiNgisi, kuhlanganise nenqubo efanelekile yokuvikela. Amakoloni ayevame ukuhlanganisa iziqinisekiso zezinqubo zomthetho ezilungile. I-Massachusetts Body of Liberales (1641) yanikeza izivikelo eziningiliziwe zezentengiselwano kubamangalelwa becala, kuhlanganise nelungelo lokubhekana nofakazi nobufakazi obukhona. Lokhu okuhlangenwe nakho kwamakoloni kwaguqula ukuqonda kwamaFramers ngenqubo efanele lapho ehlela u-U.S.S. uMthetho-Constitution ne-Bill of Rights. Amazwi athi "isiqalo senqubo yomthetho" savela eSiphendulo sesihlanu njengesizukulwane esinguqu seMagna Carta's "Umthetho wezwe".

Ifulemu Yomthetho - sisekelo E - United States

UMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. uqukethe izigaba ezimbili ezicacile ezifanele, ngayinye ifeza imisebenzi ehlukene kodwa ephelelisayo.

ISichibiyelo Sesihlanu: Izivikelo Ezingokwenani

Ngo-1791 yamiswa njengengxenye yeSiphakamiso samalungelo, iSichibiyelo sesihlanu sinikeza ukuthi akekho umuntu ozothi "aphucwe ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho." Lomusho usebenza ngokuqondile kuhulumeni wezwe. IsiHlanzi sesihlanu sihlanganisa futhi nesivikelo esihlobene necala elikhulu labahluleli, ukuvikela ezingozini eziphindwe kabili, nelungelo lokumelana nokuzilahla. Lemimiselo iqinisekisa ukuthi ubugebengu nomphakathi ulandela izindinganiso ezimisiwe zomthetho.

ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nane: Ukuvulela Izwe Isivikelo

I-Accomplist yabekwa yabekwa ngemva kweMpi Yombango ngo-1868, iSichibiyelo se-Adrect Process ye 14th Claus eyisa isivikelo esifanayo kohulumeni bombuso. Ingxenye 1 ithi akukho mbuso ozo "kukhipha noma yimuphi umuntu wokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho" lesi sigqebhezana siye sasetshenziswa ekusebenziseni i-Bill of Rights isivikelo ezindaweni ngemfundiso yokufakwa kwenye indawo. ISiphendulo se-14th sihlanganisa futhi ne-Aumedicity Protection Clace, esebenza ecaleni kwenqubo efanele ukuqinisekisa ukuphathwa ngokulunga kwabo bonke abantu.

Inqubo Eyisisekelo Elindelekile: Ukwanda Okungaqondakali

Ngaphezu kwezimfuneko ezingokwesiko, iNkantolo ePhakeme yase-U.S. iqaphele inqubo eyisisekelo edingayo, evikela amalungelo athile ayisisekelo ekuphazanyisweni uhulumeni ngisho nalapho kulandelwa izinqubo ezifanelekile. Lemfundiso yavela ezimweni ezinjenge Lochner v. New York (11905), lapho iNkantolo yashaya khona imithetho yezisebenzi njengokungavumelani nenqubo yesivumelwano. Inqubo yanamuhla efanelekile ehlobene nemfihlo, umshado, ubudlelwane bomkhaya, nokuzilawula. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi inqubo efanelekile ye-patlet ngokomthetho ivumela izinkantolo ukuba ziphume ebhentshiwe ebhentshisini, nakuba abasekeli bephikisa ukuthi ibalulekile ekuvikeleni inkululeko ngayinye engahlelwangahlelwangahlelwanga obala eMthethweni.

Icala Eliyinhloko Lenkantolo Eliyisihluthulelo Liyayichitha Inqubo Efanele

INkantolo Ephakeme yase - United States iye yachaza futhi yandisa amalungelo afanele enqubo ngezinqumo eziwuphawu lwezenzakalo ezikhuluma ngemingcele engokwesiko nangamagama avamile.

UGideon (1963): Ilungelo lokunikeza iseluleko

Clarence Earl Gideon wabekwa icala lokugqekeza egumbini laseFlorida futhi wacela ummeli omiswe inkantolo, lowo umbuso owawuphika ngoba iFlorida kuphela eyayinikeza iseluleko emacaleni abulalayo. UGideyoni wazivikela futhi walahlwa icala. INkantolo Ephakeme yavumelana ngokuthi ilungelo leSixth Isichibiyeli sesiyalulo liyilungelo elibalulekile elisebenzayo kumazwe ngeSivumelwano seSimemezelo seNguquko se - 14. Lesi sinqumo saguqula isimiso somthetho somthetho waseMelika, samisa ukuthi kumelwe kunikeze abamangali abangenakukwazi ukuwakhokhela emacaleni. Isinqumo kamuva sanwetshwa ukuba bafake izigwebo ezinkantolo ezingafanele zithwale isigwebo sejele.

Miranda v. Arizona (1966): Izivikelo Zokuvikela Imvelo Phakathi Nokuhlangana

Ernesto Miranda waboshwa ngokuthumba nokudlwengula okusekelwe kakhulu ekuvumeni izono akwenza lapho ebuzwa amaphoyisa ngaphandle kokwaziswa ngamalungelo akhe. INkantolo Ephakeme, esinqumweni esingu-5-4, yasekela ukuthi iSichibiyelo sesihlanu sidinga ukugcinwa komthetho ukuze kwaziswe abasolwa ngamalungelo abo ngaphambi kokuphenywa kwemvume. Ikheli likaMiranda eliba umphumela, ukutshela abasola ilungelo labo lokuthula nelungelo labo kummeli, kuye kwaba isici esivamile senqubo esemthethweni ye-America. Isinqumo esiqiniswe ngokuqinisekisa ukuthi ukuvuma kwabo kuyinto yokuzithandela nokwazi.

I - Roe Wade (1973) Namalungelo Ezindaba Zomuntu Siqu

INkantolo eRoe v. Wade yaqaphela ukuthi umqondo weSichibiyelo seshumi nane senkululeko yomuntu siqu uhlanganisa ilungelo lowesifazane lokuqeda ukukhulelwa kwakhe. IJaji uHarry Blackmun umbono womphakathi wathola lo mbono phakathi "kwethumbana" ovikelwe yi-Created Process Claus. Nakuba uRoe wajikiswa eDobts v. Jackson’s Health Organization (20222), icala elibalulekile ukuze kuboniswe indlela efanele yokuvikela inqubo yokuzimela komuntu siqu. Isizathu esingokomthetho eRoe sakhiwe ezicaleni zangaphambili, kuhlanganise Gristold [195].Connecticut [FLD] [FLD] [1955], esahlasela umthetho owenqabelayo ukuvimbela ukuvimbela ukuvimbela inqubo yokuvimbela inqubo yokuvimbela inqubo.

Mathews v. Eldridge (1976): Ukulinganisela Ukuhlola Inqubo Efanele

Lelicala lasungula uhlelo lwanamuhla lokunquma ukuthi iziphi izivikelo ezingokwemvelo ezidingekayo lapho uhulumeni ephuca umuntu ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla. INkantolo yakha ukuhlolwa kwezinga lokulinganisela: (1) isithakazelo somuntu siqu esithinteka ngesenzo sikahulumeni; (2) ingozi yokuncishwa iphutha ngezinqubo ezikhona kanye nenani elifanele lezisivikelo ezengeziwe; (3) isithakazelo sikahulumeni, kuhlanganise nemithwalo yokuphatha. Lendlela eguquguqukayo iqondise izinkantolo ekuhloleni inqubo efanele enqubeni yokuthola izinzuzo zemisebenzi yomphakathi ezisukela ekukhubazekeni.

Izindlela Zanamuhla Eziyinkimbinkimbi Zokwenza Inqubo Efanele

Izimiso ezisebenza kahle ziyaqhubeka ziguquka futhi zizivumelanise nezinselele zomthetho zanamuhla, zithinta izici eziningi zomthetho nokubusa.

Ubulungisa Bobugebengu Buyashintsha

Inqubo efanelekile isalokhu ibalulekile ezimpikiswaneni eziphathelene nokushintshwa komthetho wobugebengu. Impikiswano ihlanganisa ukubuyiselwa kwebheyili, lapho abasekeli bephikisa khona ukuthi ukuvalelwa ngaphambi kokuqulwa kwecala ngaphandle kokuzivikela okufanelekile kungqubuzana nenqubo efanele; ukunxusa kwezindlela zokukhomba, lapho ukucindezela kokwamukela ukuthengiselana kungase kululaze ukwazi nokuwaphula ngokuzithandela amalungelo; futhi ukuziphatha okubi komshushisi, lapho ukugodlela ubufakazi obungagunyaziwe kuphula khona Brady v. Maryland isilinganiso esidinga ukuboniswa kobufakazi obuhle. Izindlela zokulandisa, kuhlanganise nokuthatha umthwalo wesitho kanye nokuqeqesha okuthuthukisiwe, ngenjongo yokuthuthukisa ukulunga phakathi komthetho nezakhamuzi.

Amalungelo Ezindaba Zomuntu Siqu Enkathini Yokusetshenziswa Kwamanani

Intuthuko yezobuchwepheshe iye yadala izinselele ezintsha ezifanele ngokuphathelene nokuhlola, ukuqoqwa kokwaziswa, kanye nokuzibopha kwemishini. INkantolo Ephakeme yakhuluma ngalezindaba Carpeenter v. United States (2018), ibambe ukuthi ukuthola uhulumeni ukwaziswa okungokomlando ngendawo yocingo lwezingcingo kwenza ukuncintisana kweSijikelezo sesine okudinga isiqinisekiso. Isinqumo saqaphela ukuthi ukulandelela izimpawu ezinengqondo zemfihlo ngezindlela zokuhlola imfihlo akuzona. Inqubo engokwesiko yamahlelo nemithetho yezokwaziswa, idinga ukuba abantu bathole isaziso semininingwane yemininingwane ye-cell phone kanye nethuba lokubekela inselele uhulumeni ekutholeni ukwaziswa kwabo imvume.

Umthetho Oshintshashintshayo Nobuqotho Bemvelo

Imicimbi yokuthutha iye yaba inkundla ebalulekile yezimpikiswano ezifanelekile. Izimpikiswano zokususa imicimbi zinelungelo lokuthola izivikelo ezithile zezentengiselwano, kuhlanganise nesaziso samacala, ithuba lokunikeza ubufakazi, nokumelela ngezeluleko zabo siqu. Nokho, izinkantolo zokuthutha ziye zabhekana neziphakamiso neziphakamiso ezithiyayo ezingathinta izinga lezentengiselwano. INkantolo Ephakeme Padilla v. Kentucky (2010) yakholelwa ukuthi abameli bezokuvikela izigebengu kumelwe baxwayise amakhasi ngemiphumela yokufuduka yezicelo zobugebengu, beqaphela imiphumela emibi yezeleleko yezelele ezigebengwini.

Umthetho Ophethe Nokwenziwa Kwesinqumo Se - agency

Izinhlangano zokuphatha ze-Federal kanye nombuso zisebenzisa amandla aphawulekayo kubantu ngabanye ngokufaka imishini, ngokusiza izinqumo, nokuqondisa. Inqubo idinga izinqubo ezilungile ekuqulweni kwezindaba, kuhlanganise nesaziso, ithuba lokunikeza ubufakazi, nabenzi bezonqumo abangakhethi. I-Administrative Procedura Act inikeza uhlelo olusemthethweni lokumiswa kwezinhlangano zokushaya imithetho nokufushaniswa kwezimiso ezifanele. Izinkantolo zibukeza izenzo zezinhlangano ukuqinisekisa ukuthi zivumelana nezimfuneko zezimiso ezisemthethweni futhi azibahluphi izithakazeli ezizi abantu ngabanye.

Imibono Yomhlaba Wonke Enqubweni Efanele

Izimiso ezifanele ziye zamukelwa ezimisweni zomthetho emhlabeni wonke, nakuba izindlela zazo eziqondile zihlukahluka ezikhundleni ezihlukahlukene nakweminye imikhakha yomhlaba wonke.

I - European Convention on Human Rights

ISiphakamiso 6 se-European Convention on Human Rights siqinisekisa ilungelo lokuqulwa kwecala elilungile enkantolo yomphakathi nasemacala obugebengu. Isivikelo sihlanganisa ukungena enkantolo, ukuqulwa kwamacala obala ngesikhathi esifanelekile, ikomiti engakhethi, ukugconwa kobumsulwa, namalungelo okunikeza ubufakazi nokuhlola ofakazi. INkantolo yaseYurophu Yamalungelo Abantu iye yaveza amacala amakhulu angokomthetho achaza la malungiselelo, ithonya izindinganiso zomthetho ezikwehlela ezizweni ezingamalungu angu- 46. Izenqabelo zobulungisa zomthetho zidlulela ekwahluleleni nasekuqulweni okuphetheni kanye nasemicimbini ethile yomphakathi, inikeza inqubo efanelekile.

Isivumelwano Sezizwe Zonke Ngamalungelo Omphakathi Nangokwezombangazwe

ISiphakamiso 14 se-ICCPR, esiye sagunyazwa amazwe angu - 173, simisa inqubo efanelekile eqinisekisa abamangalelwa bezelele nabasekeli besizwe. Lezi zihlanganisa ukulingana phambi kwezinkantolo, ukubekwa kwamacala omphakathi, ukubekwa kwecala, amalungelo okuvikela iseluleko, nokuvikelwa ekuzivikeleni. IKomiti yamalungelo abantu ihlola ukuthotshelwa nokuchazwa kwezindaba okubumba umthetho wamalungelo abantu wezizwe zonke. I-ICPR inikeza inqubo eyisisekelo yembulunga yonke edlula amasiko engokomthetho esizwe.

Izindlela Zokuqhathanisa: UMthetho Wangaphakathi Uphikisana Nomthetho Ovamile

Izimiso zomthetho wangaphakathi, ezidlange ezwekazini leYurophu nelase-Latin America, zithatha inqubo ehambelanayo ngokuhlukile kunezimiso zomthetho ezivamile. Emazweni omthetho womphakathi, zihlola amajaji afeza indima ephambili ekuqoqeni ubufakazi, futhi ukuqulwa kwemithetho akuyona neze inqubo. Izimiso zomthetho ezivamile zigxila emalungelweni amaqembu okuhlanganyela empilweni nasebusweni obungaqiniseki. Izimiso zomthetho ezivamile zigcizelela ukuboniswa kwemiboniso, ukuqulwa kwemiyalo eqophelweni engathi sína, nemithetho ecacile esobala. Naphezu kwalokhu kuphikisana, womabili amasiko ayaqaphela inqubo eyisisekelo eyisisekelo: qaphela, ukuzwa, ukwenza izinqumo okungakhethi, nethuba lokuzwa.

Ikusasa Lenqubo Ezokwenzeka Ezweni Eligcwele Ukuchuma

Njengoba ubuchwepheshe, ukuhwebelana kwembulunga yonke nokushintsha kwezenhlalo kushintshashintsha, inqubo eqhubekayo ibhekana nezinselele ezintsha namathuba okuziphendukela kwemvelo.

Ukuhlakanipha Okuyenziwe Nobulungisa Bemithetho

Ohulumeni basebenzisa i-algorithm ngokwandayo ekubikezeleni inqubo yokusebenza kwamaphoyisa, izinqumo zebheyili, ukutusa, nokukhipha izigwebo. Lamathuluzi aphakamisa inqubo efanele ngokubonana, ukulandisa, nokunemba. Abalweli bangase bangazi ukuthi ama-algorithism afinyelela kanjani eziphethweni ezithinta inkululeko yabo, okwenza kube nzima ukubekela inselele imiphumela. [ inkinga yokuvuleka kwebhokisi elimnyama [[[FLT]] yemithetho efipheleyo ephikisana nezimfuneko ezifanele zokwenza isinqumo nokubukeza kokwahlulela okunengqondo. Izinkantolo nezishayamthetho zemithetho ziqala ukusingatha le miphumela, ngemithetho edinga ukuchazwa kwezindlela ze-algamestolic relitions kanye nezinquisitions ezizimele zamathuluzi enqunyiweyo.

Inqubo Yokuhwebelana Kwembulunga Yonke Nokuhleleka Kwesiphambano Okufanele

Ukuhwebelana kwembulunga yonke kudala izimo lapho abantu bebhekene nezenzo zomthetho ezisezindaweni eziningi, kuphakamisa imibuzo mayelana nezindinganiso ezifanele ezisebenza. Ukuhlelwa kwenqubo yenqubo elandelwayo, ukuqoqwa kobufakazi obunganqamukiyo, nophengululo lwezinhlangano zamazwe ngamazwe konke kudinga ukuhlanganiswa kwezimiso zomthetho nezindlela ezihlukahlukene zokuvikela. Izinkantolo zomhlaba wonke, njengeNkantolo yezizwe zonke, ziye zaveza izindinganiso ezilandelanayo ezilandelanayo ezithathwe emasikweni amaningi angokomthetho. Inselele iwukuqinisekisa ukuphathwa kahle kwabantu kungakhathaliseki ukuthi kuvelaphi ukuthethwa kwemithetho.

Ukubhekana Nezinselele Nokuzivumelanisa Nezimo

Izimpikiswano eziningana eziphumayo zizoqhubeka zihlela inqubo efanele. Ukushintsha kwesimo sezulu kuphakamisa imibuzo mayelana namalungelo ezizukulwane ezizayo. Ukugadeka kwe- National secreatement kuhlanganisa ukulinganisela inqubo efanele nezivikelo zokwaziswa ezihlukaniswayo. Izimiso zokukhipha izinqumo ze-interlinear kumele ziqinisekise ukuthi i-procedical eversatemental exectures. Izinhlelo zobulungisa zokulungisa zinikeza ezinye izindlela ezisetshenziswayo kulokhu kwenziwa ngenqubo yakudala.

Isiphetho

Ukuziphendukela kwemvelo kwenqubo efanele kumelela umzamo oqhubekayo wokulinganisela igunya likahulumeni namalungelo abantu. Kusukela kuMagna Carta kuya kuhulumeni wentando yeningi wanamuhla, isimiso sokuthi izinhlelo zomthetho kumelwe zibe ezilungile futhi zingabandlululi siye sahlala sisemqoka ezimisweni zobulungisa emhlabeni wonke. Inqubo efanelekile ayiminyeni; ivumelanisa izimo lapho igcina izici eziyisisekelo zesaziso, ukuzwa, nokwenza isinqumo ngokungakhethi. Ukuqonda loluhambo olungokomlando kanye nezinhlelo zalo zanamuhla kubalulekile ukuze kuqondwe indlela izimiso zomthetho ezivikela ngayo abantu ezinyathelweni eziwumthetho futhi kuqinisekise ukuthi ubulungisa bungaphathwa ngokufanelekile. [[FFF:] [FFF], [1], [FFF], inqubo efanele yokwamuzwayo, i-Extensiontionstion: "Fog, ehlangene ne-oglovementationstions of the Worldwinight,tionssion.[3] [ement:] kulelo ngalinye, futhi kulelo lomhlaba womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womhlaba wonke] kuqhubeke.[5] kulokhu kuyaqhubeka,