Isisekelo Sokulandisa Kukahulumeni

Umqondo wokulandisa ngohulumeni uye wavela ngokuphawulekayo phakathi namakhulu eminyaka, ukwakheka kwezenzakalo ezingokomlando, izinguquko zomphakathi, kanye nezimfuno zezakhamuzi. Ukuqonda lokhu kuziphendukela kwemvelo kubalulekile kokubili kubafundisi nabafundi njengoba kunikeza uhlelo lokuhlola izinselele zesikhathi esikhona ohulumeni emhlabeni wonke. Ukubekwa kwecala akuyona nje into engcono kakhulu; kuyisisekelo esinqumayo esinqumayo ukuthi uhulumeni ukhonza abantu bawo noma uyabanqoba. Kusukela emithethweni yokuqala ebhaliwe yomthetho ukuya ezindleleni zobuphathi bezempathi, uhambo lokuya ezindaweni ezikhanyayo, ezisabelayo, nohulumeni ophendulayo kuye kwathatha isikhathi eside futhi kwaphikiswana. Lesi sihloko sihlola lezozingqophakamiso, izenzakalo zefilosofi, nezithiyo eziphikelelayo eziqhubeka zichaza ukulwisana kukahulumeni ezimpilweni zokulandisa kwekhulu lokuqala.

Imibono Engokomlando Emayelana Nokulandisa Kukahulumeni

Kuwo wonke umlando, kuye kwavela izinhlobo ezihlukahlukene zikahulumeni, ngamunye unezindlela zakhe zokuziphendulela. Izindlela zokubusa zakudala zazingabonisi bufakazi, ziholela ekonakalini nasekusebenziseni kabi igunya. Nokho, izenzakalo ezibalulekile ziye zaba nengxenye ekuthuthukiseni ukulandisa kukahulumeni. Ngokuhlola lezi zenzakalo ezingokomlando, singaqonda kangcono isimo esintekenteke sezinhlangano ezilandisayo nokuqapha okudingekayo ukuze zilondolozwe.

Impucuko Yasendulo Nembewu Yokuphatha

Emiphakathini yasendulo, njengaleyo yase-Mesopotamiya naseGibithe, ababusi babevame ukubhekwa njengabaphezulu. Ukulandisa ngokuyinhloko kwagunyaziswa ngezinhlangano zenkolo kunokuba kugunyazwe izakhiwo zikahulumeni. I-Code of Hammurabi (i-circ 1754 BC) ingenye yemithetho engokomthetho yakudala eyaziwayo futhi yamiswa ukuthi ababusi babeboshwe umthetho, okungenani ngemibono. Nokho, ukuqashelwa kwamandla kwakuxhomeke kakhulu egunyeni likambusi ngokwakhe. Ngokufanayo, eChina yasendulo, umqondo "usuku lwezulu" wawukholelwa ukuthi uma ababusi belahlekelwa umusa waphezulu, isimo sokulandisa ngokokuziphatha. Nokho, lezi zimiso zakuqala zazingaqashelisanga neze izakhamuzi ezivamile ukukhokhwasa amandla. Imbewu yokulandisa komphakathi yayitshalwa kodwa yayizokhula.

Ukuvela Kwentando Yeningi EGreece Yasendulo

Ukuvela kwentando yeningi eGrisi lasendulo kwaphawula ushintsho olukhulu ekulandiseni ngecala likahulumeni. E-Athens, izakhamuzi zaqala ukufuna ukuba abantu bakhululeke futhi banikwe ilungelo lokuhlanganyela ezinqubweni zokwenza izinqumo. Iziqu zomhlangano kanye noMkhandlu wamakhulu amahlanu olungiselelwe amapulatifomu ukuze kuqhutshwe impikiswano yomphakathi nokwengamela. Abaphathi babekwazi ukuhlolwa futhi bangasuswa ngokukhishwa. Nokho, lokhu kulandisa kwakulinganiselwe ekukhululeni izakhamuzi zabesilisa nabesifazane abakhutshalwe ngaphandle, izigqila, nabantu bakwamanye amazwe. Izikhulu zase-Athens zabonisa ukuthi ukulandisa kungakhelwa embusweni kahulumeni, kodwa futhi kwabonisa indlela izimiso ezinjalo ezinteketako ngayo: zingalulazwa ngayo ngokuncishwa kwenteko nempi. Izifundo zase-Athens zisalokhu zibalulekile njengendawo engcono yokulwela ukubusa nokulwa kombuso wezwe.

IRome Republic: Ukulinganisela, Ukulinganisela Nokonakala

IRome Republic yasungula isimiso esiyinkimbinkimbi kakhulu sokuhlola nokulinganisela, namagatsha ahlukene kahulumeni (i-aces, iSigele, isifunda) nehhovisi le-tribune ukuze kuvikelwe amalungelo e-pulebea. Izimiso zokulandisa zahlanganisa imingcele yeminyaka, imibhalo yezezimali yomphakathi, ne cursrusus [i-cursum] cusus [[[FLLT:1]] [indlela yomsebenzi obalulekile] [indlela yemisebenzi ekhethekile]). Nokho iRepublic yawela ekugcineni ekungcoleni, ukugxiliswa kwengcebo, nokugcwala kwamandla ngezibalo njenge-Julius Caesar. Ukuwa kweRiphabliki kusebenza njengesixwayiso: ngisho nezakhiwo zokulandisa ukulandisa ukulandisa komthetho zingabola uma ubuhle obuhle nezinhlangano umphakathi ukuphathwa yizinto ezivelele. Lokhu okungokomlando kugcizelela isidingo sezenzo zokulandisa.

I - Magna Carta Nomphumela Wayo Ohlala Njalo

Ukusayinwa kweMagna Carta ngo-1215 kuvame ukuvezwa njengesikhathi esibalulekile ekuziphendukeleni kwemvelo kukahulumeni. Kwamisa isimiso sokuthi wonke umuntu, kuhlanganise nenkosi, wayengaphansi komthetho, ebeka isisekelo sezimiso zomthetho zanamuhla. U-Celaus 39 no-40 ku-Treater bamemezela: "Akekho umuntu okhululekile ozakubanjwa noma agqunywe ejele, noma aphucwe amalungelo akhe noma impahla yakhe, noma adingiswe noma adingiswe, noma ancishwe ukuma kwakhe nganoma iyiphi indlela, futhi asisoze saphoqelela ukumelana naye, noma sithumele abanye ukuba benze kanjalo, ngaphandle kokwahlulela okungokomthetho okulingana naye noma umthetho wezwe." lokhu kwakuwukubekwa phansi kwenqubo efanelekile futhi kulinganiselwe. [kubhalwe uMquluko weSigeqe.]: [3]

Ukukhanyiselwa Nesivumelwano Sezenhlalo

Inkathi yokukhanyiselwa yasungula imibono yamalungelo abantu ngabanye nesivumelwano sezenhlalo, igcizelela ukuthi ohulumeni banesibopho sokulandisa kubantu. Izazi zefilosofi ezinjengoJohn Locke noJean-Jacques Rousseau zalwela ukuba sobala nomthwalo wemfanelo kahulumeni. I-Locle’s SAUDYY’UMTHETYUMPAWU KARHUMARY[[[[FFFLT:1]] [16]] [16] [16] [69] [imvume] yokuthi uhulumeni osemthethweni usekelwe ekuvumeni kwababuswayo nokuthi izakhamuzi bakhona futhi banelungelo lokuvukela uhulumeni ozobusayo kanye nemibono ephakeme kakhulu. I-Rocester’ston inikeza [[FLT] [1] iSikhathi seSikhathi seSikhathi seSikhathi seSikhathi se-mvume sokuQuni esiphezulu, isikhulu sesizwe sesizwe, kodwa sinyatheliswe isikhulu sesizwe esiwunyatheliswe kakhulu, isikhulume ngokubanzi sesizwe, isikhulu sesizwe, isikhulu sesizwe, isikhulu

Ukukhula Kwemithetho Yomthetho - sisekelo

Ukumiswa kwemibuso ezimele yomthetho-sisekelo ngekhulu le-18 nele-19 kwathuthukisa izimiso zokulandisa. Imithetho-sisekelo yayivame ukuhlanganisa ukuhlola nokulinganisela ukuze kuvinjelwe ukusetshenziswa kabi kwegunya. UMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S., kanye nokuhlukaniswa kwawo kwemibuso phakathi kwekhulu le-19, isikhulu, isikhulu, namagatsha okwahlulela, kwasungula isimiso sokuqondisana. ISimiso samalungelo samalungelo aqinisekisa inkululeko esenza izakhamuzi ukuba zigcine ukulandisa kohulumeni: ukulandisa, ukuhlangana, ukuhlangana, nokunxusa. Izimiso ezifanayo zavela eYurophu, iLatin America, nakwezinye izindawo. Phakathi nokwanda kweqembu lezombangazwe, nokukhula kwezezombangazwe, nokukhula kwazo zonke izikhungosi ezikhululekile kwanikela iqhaza elikhulu kakhulu ekuthwaseni umthwalo wemfanelo kahulumeni, nakuba intuthuko nokungalingani. Inqubo yezinhlangano zephalamende yezinhlangano zezindawo zezifunda zezifunda zamazwe zaseYurophu nezinye izinhlangano zaseYurophu, ukuphakamisa icala, ukuhlanganisa umthwalo wemfanelo, nokuziqu kweze.

Intuthuko Yanamuhla Iyalandisa

Njengoba imiphakathi yayithuthukela enkathini yanamuhla, kwavela izici ezintsha zokulandisa, ezazithonywe ukuvukela, izimpi, nokukhula komphakathi womphakathi.

Inkathi Eqhubekayo Nezinguquko Zokuphatha

Ekuqaleni kwawo - 1900, inhlangano eqhubekayo eUnited States yahlasela inkohlakalo futhi yasekela uhulumeni. Izinguquko zahlanganisa ukusungulwa kwezivivinyo zenkonzo yomphakathi, ukukhethwa okuqondile kwezifemu (iSichibiyelo sekhulu le - 17, kanye nokusetshenziswa kwe-astendem futhi kukhumbule. Ukwakhiwa kwezinhlangano ezizimele ezizimele njenge Interstate Commission neFederal Trade Commission ehloselwe ukuba izinhlangano ezizimele ziphendule, kodwa kwaphakamisa nemibuzo emisha ngecala lalezi zindikimba ezingagunyaziwengagunyaziwe.

Izinguquko Zangemva KweWatergate

Mhlawumbe akukho senzakalo esisodwa esaveza ukulandisa kwanamuhla e-U.S. njengehlazo laseWatergate (197.74). Ukusetshenziswa kabi kwegunya kukaMongameli uRichard Nixon kwaholela ekushintsheni: i-Ethics in Government Act (1978) yasungula iziluleko ezizimele, i-Freige Surveillance Act (FA) yamisa ukuqondisa kobuhloli, nenkululeko yolwazi Act (FOIA) yaqiniswa. Izimiso ezifanayo zokuziphendulela zathathwa kwezinye imibuso yentando yeningi, kuhlanganise nemithetho ye-ombudsman, imithetho yokuvikela i-riverserveiller, kanye nokuthola ukwaziswa.

Indima Yomphakathi Wasebuthweni Nabezindaba

Ngasekupheleni kwekhulu lama-20 nasekuqaleni kwelama-21, izinhlangano zomphakathi kanye namaphephandaba aphenya zaba yizigebengu ezigxekayo. Amaqembu anjenge-Transparency International (esungulwe ngo 1993) ahlola ukonakala embulungeni yonke. Ukuphakama kwe-inthanethi nezokuxhumana kuye kwenza ukuba kusakazwe ngokushesha ukwaziswa kanye nokuqoqwa kotshani, kodwa futhi kwadala neziqu ezintsha zokungaqondisi kokungaqondi kahle nenkulumo - ze. Izindaba ezikhululekile nezizimele zihlala ziyisisekelo sokulandisa, njengoba kuqashelwe [[FLT: 0] [UNUNES] Intest World FreeFreedoms Day [

Izinselele Zamanje Ezokulandisa Kukahulumeni

Naphezu kwentuthuko enkulu, ohulumeni banamuhla babhekana nezinselele eziningi ekulondolozeni umthwalo wemfanelo. Izinkinga ezinjengokonakala, ukungabi sobala, nethonya lezithakazelo ezikhethekile ziyaqhubeka zilulaza ukwethenjwa umphakathi. Ukuyinkimbinkimbi kokubusa kwanamuhla, kuhlanganise nokuphathiswa kwegunya ezinkampanini zomhlaba wonke nakuzo zonke izinkampani zokwakha, kwenza kube nzima ngezakhamuzi ukuqaphela ukuthi ubani onecala lezi zinqumo.

Ukonakala Nokuncipha Kokwethembana

Inkohlakalo ihlala ikhona ezingxenyeni eziningi zomhlaba. I-transpactive International Urhration Perceptions Index ibonisa ukuthi amazwe amaningi asekude kakhulu nezwe elingenakho ukonakala. Ukonakala kuhilela izikhulu zezinga eliphezulu, kuyilapho ukonakala okuncane kuthinta izinkonzo zansuku zonke. Kokubili kululaza ukubusa komthetho nesimiso sokuthi ihhovisi lomphakathi liyithemba lomphakathi. Izinhlangano ezilwa nomthetho wezentengiselwano nezimemezelo zezezo zezentengo zingezamathuluzi avamile, kodwa zivame ukukhohliswa noma ukuhlehliswa kwezombangazwe.

Ithonya Lezithakazelo Ezikhethekile Nokuzilibazisa

Ezimisweni zentando yeningi, ukunxusa kungokomthetho kodwa kungaphazamisa isimiso sokuzifunela izithakazelo ezicebile. Inkantolo ePhakeme yase-U.S. i- i-Citizens United sinqumo (2010) sivumele umkhankaso ongenakulinganiswa ochithwa ngezinhlangano nezinyunyana, okuholela ekukhathazekeni ukuthi izikhulu ezikhethiwe zinecala kakhulu kubanikeli kunezakhamuzi ezivamile. Inqubo yendlu esemthethweni, lapho izikhulu zikahulumeni zihamba khona ukuze zithathe izikhundla, zibhicothe imigqa eqinile. Amanye amazwe anemithetho eqinile, kodwa imali kwezombangazwe ihlala iyinselele engapheli emhlabeni wonke.

Indima Yobuchwepheshe: Isithembiso Nesinxephezelo

Ubuchwepheshe buye baguqula isimo sokulandisa kukahulumeni. Nakuba buye benza kube lula kakhulu ukuveza obala ngokuthatha ama-athom, buye baqala izinselele ezintsha, njengokwaziswa okunganembile nosongo lwe-inthanethi. Ohulumeni manje basebenzisa i-algorithm nokuhlakanipha kokwenziwa ukwenza izinqumo eziphathelene ne-polishi, inhlalakahle, nezinkonzo zomphakathi. Lezi zimiso zingaba lukhuni, zixekethile, futhi zingabalwa. Umqondo "wezokulandisa" uvela njengomkhakha wesifundo, kodwa imithetho ikhona ingekho phambili ekufezekeni. Ukufinyelela komphakathi emininingwaneni kahulumeni kuye kwathuthuka ngama-stable .

Izithiyo Zokuhwebelana Kwembulunga Yonke Nokulandisa

Ukuhwebelana kwembulunga yonke kuyinkimbinkimbi njengoba ohulumeni belawula ubudlelwane bomhlaba wonke kanye nokucindezela kwezomnotho. Ukuhlangana kwamazwe ahlangene kusho ukuthi izindaba zokulandisa kwelinye izwe zingaba nemiphumela enzima. Izinhlangano zamazwe amaningi zisebenza emingceleni, ngokuvamile ziphunyuke ekufinyeleleni imingcele yanoma yimuphi umbuso owodwa. Ukungalawuleki kwentela, ukuwohloka kwendawo ezungezile, nokusetshenziswa kabi kwamalungelo abantu ngamaketanga okunikeza izimali emhlabeni wonke kunzima ukubhekana nokulandisa. Izinhlangano zomhlaba zonke njengeZizwe Ezihlangene neNhlangano ye-World Trade Trade zinamandla alinganiselwe. Ukuphakama kwemibuso yempalatha kanye nokuthambekela ekuthatheni idemokhrasi emazweni amaningi kugcizelela ukuwohloka kwezimiso zokulandisa.

Izinyathelo Zokuqinisekisa Ukuthi Uhulumeni Unecala

Ukuze kuxazululwe izinselele zamanje, kungasetshenziswa amasu amaningana ukuze kukhululeke ukulandisa kukahulumeni, adinga ukushisekela ezombangazwe, ukuthembisana uhulumeni, nokusungulwa kwezinhlangano.

  • uqinisa uhlaka lwemithetho [ ukuze kuqinisekiswe ukubonakala bhabha nokulandisa. Lokhu kuhlanganisa ukuguqula imithetho ye-FOI, ukuvikela abafuyi bekhwelo, nokuqinisekisa ukuthi izinqubo zokuphatha zilungile futhi zifanelwe ukubukezwa kokwahlulela.
  • [ ukuthatha iqhaza kwesakhamuzi ekubuseni ngama-orm, uhlelo lokuhlela, nokuhlola. Izinyathelo ezinjenge ukunikeza imali yokuhlela [ kuye kwaphumelela emadolobheni amaningi emhlabeni wonke, kunikeza izakhamuzi ukulawula ngokuqondile izingxenye zemali echithwa emphakathini.
  • Ubuchwepheshe obusebenzisayo ukuthuthukisa ukufinyelela kokwaziswa nokuthuthukisa izinyathelo zolwazi ezivulekile. Ohulumeni kufanele bamukele izindinganiso ezivulekile, banyathelise ukwaziswa kumafomethi okukopisha omshini, futhi bafake nokufunda ngemishini ukuze izakhamuzi zikwazi ukusebenzisa leyo mininingwane.
  • Ihlela izindikimba zobubonisi ezizimele ukuqondisa izenzo zikahulumeni, njengemishini emelene nokonakala, i-ombudsmen, kanye nojenene wezibalo. Le mizi yeyodwa neyokusebenza kahle.
  • Ukufaka imithombo yezindaba ekhululekile nezimele [ engahlola futhi ibike ngohulumeni ngaphandle kokwesaba ukuphindisela. Lokhu kudinga isivikelo esingokomthetho kubacosheli bezindaba, ukufinyelela imithetho yokwaziswa, nokusekela komphakathi ukufunda imithombo yezindaba.
  • ukuqinisa ukubambisana kwezizwe zonke [ ukusingatha izindaba zokulandisa ezithinta izizwe zonke, kuhlanganise nezikhungo zentela, ukonakala kwezebhizinisi lomhlaba wonke, kanye nezibopho zesimo sezulu.
  • Imfundo yomphakathi efundisa izakhamuzi amalungelo azo nendlela yokufuna ukulandisa. Isazi sezakhamuzi siyisici esiyinhloko sanoma yimuphi uhulumeni olandisayo.

Isiphetho

Ukuziphendukela kwemvelo kokulandisa kukahulumeni kuyisiqinisekiso sokulwela ukubonakala nobulungisa okuqhubekayo. Ngokuhlola imibono engokomlando nezinselele zamuva, othisha nabafundi bangakuqonda kangcono ukubaluleka kokwenza ohulumeni balandise ezweni lanamuhla eliyinkimbinkimbi. Ukulandisa akuyona inqubo eqashelwayo kodwa inqubo edinga ukuqashelwa njalo, ukuthembisana, nokuqapha. Ukusukela eMagna Carta kuya enkathini yonyaka yezibalo, ukufuna ukulandisa ngohulumeni kuhlala kuphakathi kwezindaba zempucuko yabantu. Njengoba sibhekene nezinselele ezintsha zezehlakanizo zempucuko yabantu. [1] Njengoba sibhekene nezinselele ezintsha zokwenza izinqumo, ukushintsha kwesimo sezulu, nokunyuka kwezimiso zobupholistries, ukubonakala, ukuthatha icala, nokubusa umthetho akukaze kube baluleke kakhulu. Ukufunda kusukela esikhathini esidlule nakuhlanganisa nokuhlanganisa abantu abakhona, kungaqinisekisa ukuthi imibuso ezindaweni ezikhona.