Umlando Nenjongo Yokuhlola Nokulinganisela Kuhulumeni Wase - United States

Isimiso sokuhlola nokulinganisela siwumgogodla kahulumeni kahulumeni wombuso we-United States. Iyinqubo ehlelwe kahle eklanyelwe ukuvimbela noma iliphi igatsha elilodwa (-legislative, isikhulu, noma ihlulelo ) ekuqongeleni amandla anganqandwayo. Ngokunikeza igatsha ngalinye amandla ahlukene nezindlela zokulinganisela izenzo zabanye, uMthetho-sisekelo udala isimiso esinamandla sokuphathana. Lesihloko sihlola imvelaphi engokomlando, uhlaka lwemithetho-mthetho, izinjongo, nezici eziyisisekelo, nezinganiso zanamuhla zezokuhlola nokulinganisela kwesimiso sezombangazwe saseMelika, kubonisa indlela lo mklamo ohlala njalo ovikela ngayo inkululeko nokulondoloza ukubusa okunesibopho.

Imvelaphi Engokomlando Yokuhlukana Kwamandla

Abaklami boMthetho - sisekelo waseU.S. basebenzisa umqondo ongokwezombangazwe nowokuhlangenwe nakho okungokoqobo emakhulwini eminyaka.

Isisekelo Sasendulo Nesokukhanyiselwa

Izingqondo zezombangazwe kusukela ku-Aristotle kuya kuJohn Locke zaphikisa isikhathi eside ukuthi amandla agcwele onakalisa. Nokho, ithonya eliqondile kwabalawuli baseMelika kwakuyisazi sefilosofi esingumFulentshi [[FLT: 0]] uBaron de Montesquieu. Kumsebenzi wakhe we 1748] Umoya woMthetho [[[FLT] , uMontesquieus waphikisa ukuthi inkululeko ilondololwe kahle kakhulu uma isikhulu, isikhulu, nemisebenzi yokwahlulela kahulumeni igcinwa ihlukene futhi ibekwe ezimpawini ezihlukahlukene. Waxwayisa ukuthi “lapho i-mthetho negunya lezikhulu zihlangene kumuntu ofanayo, noma esinyameni esifanayo sezinduna, ngeke kube khona inkululeko.” Abameleli bafunda i-Montequieuteunt futhi bashoshone ngokubhekise kakhulu phakathi nomthetho womthetho phakathi kwe-Convention [Flation:] [Fomer:]]

Okuhlangenwe Nakho Kwamakoloni Nokubusa KwaseBrithani

Abenzi bamakoloni baseMelika banolwazi lwabo siqu lwesimiso esasingenakho ukuhlola okuphumelelayo. Ngaphansi kokubusa kweBrithani, ababusi bamakoloni babevame ukusebenzisa kokubili ithonya lobuphathi nelomthetho, futhi uHulumeni wayengayilawula imithetho yamakoloni ngokuthanda. Ukumisa ukukhululwa ngokuqondiswe ngokuqondile] kwamacala anjengalawo okuthi iNkosi “iyawavumela uMthetho, imithetho elungile nedingeka kakhulu ekwakheni okuhle” futhi“ yenza abaHluleli bancike entando yayo kuphela. Lokhu kugcizelela isinqumo sabenzi bezakhiwo zombuso lapho kungekho gunya elilodwa lingayikhipha khona intando yabantu noma amanye amagatsha.

Ubuthakathaka Bezihloko Zokuvumelana

Ngemva kwenkululeko, uhlelo lokuqala lukahulumeni, i-Articles of Confederation [1], yakha uhulumeni obuthakathaka ophakathi ongenagunya elizimele noma ijaji. UKhongolo lwabonisa ukuhluleka kukahulumeni ukugcina ukuhleleka kwezwe kodwa lwantula amandla okuphoqelela imithetho, intela, noma ukulawula kwezentengiselwano. Umphumela waba yisiphithiphithiphithiphithi: izicelo zenhlangano, umcebo wesizwe wawungenalutho, futhi ukuvukela kukaShay’s (1786-1787) kwabonisa ukuhluleka kukahulumeni ukugcina uhlelo. Lokhu kwehluleka kwethemba abaholi njengoJakobe u-Magdemino no-Alexander Shavingle u-Allmian ukuthi inte, noma uhulumeni wezwe ngokulinganisela.

Umsebenzi Womthetho - sisekelo: Amagatsha Amathathu, Isimiso Esisodwa

UMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S., wagunyazwa ngo-1788 futhi waphumelela ngo-1789, wamisa amagatsha amathathu alinganayo: i-wignostic (Coner), umphathi (uMongameli nezinhlangano zokuphatha), kanye nokwahlulela (izinkantolo zezezimali, eziqondiswa yiNkantolo Ephakeme). Igatsha ngalinye linegunya lalo elibaliwe nemithwalo yemfanelo, futhi ngalinye linamathuluzi akhethekile okuhlola amandla abanye ababili. Lokhu akukona ukwahlukana okuqinile kodwa kunalokho kuyisimiso segunya elihlangene negunya elilahliswe [.

Igatsha Elinomthetho (Ikhono I)

UKhongolo luyindikimba yokwenza umthetho, eyakhiwa iNdlu yabameleli neSigele. Amandla ayo ayinhloko ukubhala, ukuphikisana, nokushaya umthetho, kodwa futhi iphethe iziphetho ezibalulekile kwamanye amagatsha:

  • [ Approptiation Power:[ Congress ilawula uhlelo lwemali kahulumeni; ayikho imali engasetshenziswa ngaphandle kokuvunyelwa yiyo, inike amandla phezu kwezenzo zomongameli.
  • I-Advice kanye ne- Connect (ISivumelwano): ISigele kumelwe siqinisekise ukumiswa kwabaphathi bejaji bakahulumeni, onobhala beKhabhinethi, amanxusa, nezinye izikhulu eziphakeme.
  • [ Izivumelwano zezizwe zonke ezixoxwe nguMongameli zifuna ivoti yesigele esinesithathu ezimbili ukuze isebenze.
  • I-athompering:[ Indlu ingakhipha izikhulu zikahulumeni (inani), kuhlanganise noMongameli, ngenxa “yomcabango, ukufumbathisa, noma amanye amacala amakhulu kanye namaphutha.” ISigele sivele siqule icala futhi singasusa isikhulu ngevoti eliphindwe ka-3.
  • O ukunganakwa kwe-Vtoes:[ Uma uMongameli ekhipha umthetho, uMkhandlu unganqoba lokho ngenani eliphindwe kabili eliphindwe kathathu emagumbini womabili.
  • Ukuqapha: Amakomiti angahlola imisebenzi yegatsha eliphethe, imibhalo engaphansi kanye nofakazi, futhi aphoqelele ubufakazi.

Igatsha Eliphethe (Article II)

UMongameli uyinhloko yegatsha eliphethe, onomthwalo wemfanelo wokumisa imithetho kahulumeni, ukuyala ibutho lezempi, nokuphatha umthetho wakwamanye amazwe. Iziphetho zikaMongameli kwamanye amagatsha zihlanganisa:

  • Ukuvumisa:[ UMongameli angawenqaba umthetho odluliswa yiSishaya-mthetho, aphoqelele abenzi bomthetho ukuba baphinde bacabangele noma bafune amandla amakhulu okulawula.
  • Authority Orevition: uMongameli umisa amajaji kahulumeni, kuhlanganise namajaji eNkantolo Ephakeme, kanye nezikhulu eziphethe. Nakuba lokhu kumisa kudinga ukuqinisekiswa kweSigele, uMongameli ulawula ukukhethwa.
  • [ Pradon Power: UMongameli anganikeza ukuxolelwa nokubuyiselwa ebugebengwini bukahulumeni (ngaphandle kokungagunyazi), anikeze isheke emandleni okwahlulela egatsha nasezinqumweni zomshushisi.
  • [ Imiyalelo esebenzayo ne-Directives: UMongameli anganikeza iziyalo ezibophayo egatsheni eliphetheyo ukuba lilawule ukusebenza nokusebenzisa imithetho, nakuba imiyalo enjalo ingabekelwa inselele enkantolo noma ingabekelwe inselele ngomthetho.
  • uMyaleli kuSikhulu:[ Lapho uKhongolose ememezela impi, uMongameli uqondisa amabutho empi futhi angathumela amabutho izinsuku eziyi 60 ngaphansi kweSigqisho seMpi.

Igatsha Lokwahlulela (Article III)

Izinkantolo zikahulumeni, neNkantolo Ephakeme ephethe, ichaza imithetho, ixazulule izingxabano, futhi iqinisekise ukuthi imithetho nezenzo zokuphatha zivumelana noMthetho-sisekelo. Izindlela zejaji kwamanye amagatsha yilezi:

  • Jodicial Review: Amandla okumemezela imithetho noma izenzo zezikhulu ngaphandle kwemithetho. Leligunya lamiswa ku- Madison [1803] , lapho uMahluleli omkhulu John Marshall abhala ukuthi “kugcizelela isifundazwe somnyango wokwahlulela ukuthi umthetho uyini.” Leli yinhlolo - kwahlulela okunamandla kakhulu.
  • [ Ukufakwa kwemithetho: izinkantolo zinquma ukuthi izimiso zisebenza kanjani emacaleni athile, ngokuphumelelayo ukulolonga isimiso phakathi kwemingcele ebekwe yiSishayamthetho.
  • Incict nezindlela: Izinkantolo zingamisa izenzo zezikhulu ngemithetho futhi zingayala uhulumeni ukuba enze (noma agweme) ngezindlela ezithile.
  • Jodicial Review of Presidential zenzo: INkantolo Ephakeme iye yanquma imingcele yamandla okulawula emacaleni anjenge Intsha eshatown Comment & Tube Co. Sayer (1952)[FL:3], eyavimbela ukuthunjwa kukaMongameli Truman ngamasondo ensimbi phakathi neMpi yase Korea.

Injongo Yokuhlola Nokulinganisela

Abaklami baklama ukuhlolwa nokulinganiswa kwezinjongo eziningana ezihlobene engqondweni. Lezi zinjongo zisabalulekile ekubusweni komthetho - sisekelo waseMelika namuhla.

Ukuvimbela Impatho Namandla Amisiwe

James Madison, ku- Umdwebi No. 51, waphikisa ngokudumile: “Umbuso kumelwe wenziwe ukuze ulwe nesifiso sokuvelela.” Wachaza ukuthi isakhiwo sikahulumeni kumelwe sivumele igatsha ngalinye ukuba limelane nokungezwa ezinye. Ngokunikeza igatsha ngalinye “izindlela zomthetho-sisekelo ezidingekile nezisusa zomuntu siqu zokumelana”, uMthetho-sisekelo uqinisekisa ukuthi akukho qiniso noma igatsha elingabusa. Lena injongo ebaluleke kakhulu: ukuvikela inkululeko ngokusakaza igunya.

Ukukhuthaza Inkululeko Nokuhlehla

Ngenxa yokuthi igatsha ngalinye lingavala ezinye, isimiso siphoqelela ukuxoxisana nokuvumelana. Isivumelwano kumelwe siphumelele enqubweni yemithetho emagumbini amabili, sithole isignesha sikaMongameli (noma i-veto serve), futhi sidlulise ukuhlangana komthetho-mthetho ezinkantolo. Lokhu kunciphisa inqubo yomthetho ngamabomu kusuzi. Kuvimbela ukusheshisa, imithetho engacatshangelwe kahle futhi kukhuthaza ukuxhumana, ukubambisana, nokuvumelana phakathi kwamagatsha naphakathi kwamaqembu ezombangazwe.

Ukuvikela Inkululeko Kamuntu Ngamunye

Amasesha nezilinganiso zesakhiwo kuyisiqinisekiso samalungelo abantu ngabanye. Ngokuhlukanisa amandla, isimiso sinciphisa ingozi yokuba uhulumeni ucindezele izakhamuzi. Ngisho noma elinye igatsha liba nobutha benkululeko yomphakathi, elinye lingangenela. Ngokwesibonelo, ijaji lingagadla imithetho ephula umthetho we-Bill of Rights, kuyilapho iSishaya-mthetho zingahlola izinhlelo zokuhlola eziphazamisa izikhulu ekuzihloleni. Inkululeko engcono yokukhuluma, ukucindezela, kanye nomhlangano ungaphinde uvikelwe ngoba akukho gatsha elilodwa elingaqeda impikiswano ngokuphelele.

Ukuthuthukisa Ukulandisa Nokubona Ingaphandle

Igatsha ngalinye linamathuluzi okufuna ukwaziswa futhi lithethelele izenzo zabanye. Ukuqulwa kwamacala, izigebengu, nokuhlolwa kwezindaba kuphoqelela umphathi ukuba achaze izinqumo zakhe. Imibono yokwahlulela idinga ukuzwana komphakathi futhi ibeke izimpawu ezihlanganisa izenzo zesikhathi esizayo. I-veto ne-veto yemiyalezo yoMphathi uhulumeni ibekela inselele obala izinqumo zikaHulumeni. Lokhu kuqondisa kwenza izenzo zikahulumeni zibonakale futhi ziphendule izikhulu kokubili umthetho nokhetho.

Izibonelo Ezingokomlando Zokuhlola Nokulinganisela Ezisebenzayo

Kusukela emakhulwini amabili eminyaka, lesi simiso siye sahlolwa ezimpini eziningi eziphakeme. Lezi zibonelo zibonisa indlela ukuhlolwa nokulinganisela okusebenza ngayo.

Ukuhlosa KukaMongameli u - Andrew Johnson (1868)

Ngemva kweMpi Yombango, uMongameli Johnson waphikisana neSishaya-mthetho sokulungisa umthetho. UKhomishane wadlulisa uMthetho weHholo ukuze anqume amandla kaMongameli okususa izikhulu zeKhabhinethi ngaphandle kwemvume yeSishayamthetho. UJohnson wasiphula isenzo sokudubula unobhala weWar Edwin Stanton. Indlu yamjikijela, futhi icala leSigele laphela ngokuvota okuyekwayo. Nakuba uJohnson ahlala ehhovisi, lesi senzakalo samisa ukuthi uMkhandlu ungagcina uMongameli enecala futhi wabeka isiqalo sokungamelangaboshenxiyo esikhathini esizayo.

INkantolo Ephakeme Ne - New Declaration (1930)

Umongameli uFranklin D. Roosevelt we-New Deal wabhekana nezinhlelo eziphindaphindwayo zomthetho-sisekelo. INkantolo Ephakeme yashaya imithetho eminingana eyinhloko, kuhlanganise ne-National Industrial Recevection Act. Ekuphenduleni, uRooosevelt wahlongoza “ukubekwa kwecala” kwakhe ukuba afake amajaji engeziwe, iSishaya - mthetho esanqatshwa yiSishayamthetho. Lokhu kwaholela iNkanto ukuba iNkantolo ithathe indinganiso ehloniphekayo yokubukeza imithetho yezezomnotho, futhi kwabonisa indlela amagatsha angahlolana ngayo ngaphandle kwenkinga engokomthetho, iNkantolo yavala uMongameli, iNkantolo yasusa amandla ayo okuphatha, futhi isimiso somthetho saphinde saphinde samiswa.

Watergate neNixon Tape (1973-1974)

Phakathi nehlazo laseWatergate, uMongameli uRichard Nixon waqinisekisa ilungelo eliphetheyo lokugodla ama-metape kuKhongolo kanye nabashushisi abakhethekile. INkantolo Ephakeme, eUnited States v. Nixon (1974). , yanquma ngazwi linye ukuthi ilungelo eliphethe lilinganiselwe nokuthi amakhasethi kumelwe akhishwe kanye. Imathethene cishe nokungagunyazi, iNixon ihlehn. Lecala libonisa amandla ejajidicadiary ukuhlola umphathi, igunya le Homeace, nendima yeSigeqe njengelungu lokuqulwa kwecala, kanye nokusebenza ndawonye ekusekeleni umthetho womthetho.

IClinton Impecation (1998-19999)

Umongameli uBill Clinton waphambaniswa yiNdlu yokujezisa nokuvimbela ubulungisa okuhlobene nehlazo likaMonica Lewinsky. Nokho, iSigele sehluleka ukufinyelela izikhawu ezimbili-ntathu ezidingekayo ukuze ivume, futhi iClinton yahlala isehhovisi. Lokhu kwaqokomisa isimo sangamabomu senqubo yokungagunyazi kanye nebhande eliphakeme elidingekayo ekususeni umongameli ohleliyo. Kwabonisa futhi ukuthi amagatsha ezombangazwe angaxazulula izimpikiswano zomthetho-sisekelo ngezindlela ezimisiwe.

Izimiso Eziqondiswe Abaqondisi Nokubukezwa Kokwahlulela Ekhulwini Lama - 21

Omongameli bamuva baye basebenzisa iziyalo zokuqhubekisela phambili izinhloso zenkambiso lapho i-Congress isiboshwe. Ngokwesibonelo, uMongameli uBarack Obama’s Deferered Action for Parents of America (DAPA) uhlelo lwavalwa izinkantolo zikahulumeni futhi ekugcineni yiNkantolo Ephakeme United States v. Texas (2016:6) ngemva kwentambo engu-4/4. Umongameli uDonalden Donald Trump waving wabekela futhi ekugcineni wasekelwa yiNkantolo Ephakeme [FLTL:] trump.[2010] v. Hawaii (20)[FLTL:3] ngemva kwezinkantolo eziphansi zenza ukuba kubekwe umthetho. Lezi zibonise izimo ze-judiary indima eqhubekayo yemithetho ephethe.

Imibuzo Yanamuhla Nempikiswano Eqhubekayo

Kwezombangazwe zanamuhla, isimiso sokuhlola nokulinganisela sibhekene nezinselele ezintsha, kusukela ekwandeni kwamandla okubusa kuya ekuhlukaniseni ukuhlukana nokukhula kwesifundazwe esiphethe.

Ukwanda Kwamandla Aphethe

Omongameli banamuhla, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi bayiphi idili, baye bathembela kakhulu eziqondisweni zezikhulu, ezemisebenzi, kanye neziqondiso zesizwe zokuphepha ukuba badlule iSishayamthetho. Nakuba lamathuluzi ewumthetho-sisekelo phakathi kwemingcele, abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi bafiphaza ukwahlukana kwemibuso futhi balulaza ukulandisa kwemithetho. I-War Powers Resolutions,, ehloselwe ukuvala igunya lamasosha, iye yashaywa indiva noma yavinjwa. Impikiswano eqhubekayo yokuthi amagatsha agunya emithetho neyahlulele ingahlola isikhulu esimisiwe.

Ukubukeza Kokwahlulela Nokuhlaziywa Kwezombangazwe

Inqubo yokuqinisekisa yeNkantolo Ephakeme iye yaba nenqala enkulu, futhi ama-mines abhekene nokucusumbula kwemibono. Lokhu kuphakamisa imibuzo yokuthi ijaji lingahlala lizimele yini noma liba igatsha ngokwalo lezombangazwe. Ngesikhathi esifanayo, iNkantolo iye yathatha izimpikiswano ezihilela ukukhishwa kwesisu, amalungelo ezikhali, nenkululeko engokwenkolo, ngemithetho encishintshwa ngezinye izikhathi izenzakalo ezithathe isikhathi eside (umzz., Dobbs v. Jackson’s Health Organization ) ngo-20222). Amandla okubukezwa kwezomthetho ahlala ekhona ekuhloleni okunamandla amakhulu, kodwa ukukhokha kwayo kuxhomeke ekuthembeni umphakathi.

Ukuqondisa Nokuvala Izimoto Ezisemqoka

Ukuhlolwa kwamacala e-Congregational, ama-congrespoena, kanye nophengululo kuyimishini ebalulekile kumphathi. Nokho, ukuhlaziywa okukhulu kwesigaba sokuhlukana kuye kwabangela ukuba i-rocklock ihlale ikhona, okwenza kube nzima ngeKhomishane ukuba ihlole umongameli noma izinkantolo ngokuphumelelayo. Ukuhlelwa kwemithetho yemali, ukuvinjelwa kukahulumeni, nokubambezelelwa kokuqinisekisa izikhulu kuye kwavivinya isimiso. Ezinye izazi ziveza izinguquko ezinjengemingcele yemithetho yezikhulu, igunya elinamandla kakhulu lokuhlela uhlelo lwemali, noma izinguquko enqunyweni yokulungisa inqubo yokulungisa ukulinganisela.

Umbuso Ophethe Nezinkathazo Zegatsha Esine

Izinhlangano ze-Federal [1] ngokuvamile zibiza i- “igatsha lesine” ("inqumo yokushaya umthetho, ukuqondisa, nokukhipha umthetho ngokubeka umthetho, nokufushanisa. Ukubekwa kwamandla kuphakamisa ukukhathazeka ngokuhlola nokulinganisela ngoba amanxusa ayingxenye yegatsha eliphethe kodwa avame ukusebenza ngekhono elikhulu. Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme i-West Virginia v. EPA (2022)[[FL:1], elinganisela igunya lezentengosi yezentengiselwano yezemvelo ngaphansi kwe-“imfundiso yeze-major,” ibonisa imizamo yokwahlulela efuna ukuphinde inhloso ye-komiti yomthetho kanye nezinhlangano zezemali.

Ubuchwepheshe, Izindaba Zomuntu Siqu Nokulondeka Kwesizwe

Inkathi yezokusebenza iye yasungula izinselele ezintsha zokuhlola nokulinganisela. Izinhlelo zegatsha zokuhlola, ukuqoqwa kokwaziswa, kanye nokungalingani komphakathi ngokuvamile kusebenza ngokulawula okulinganiselwe. Inkantolo yezwe elizimele iSurveillance Act (FISA) yasungulwa ukunikeza ukubukeza kokwahlulela, kodwa abagxeki baphikisa ukuthi akubekezeleli kakhulu. ISishaya-mthetho wemfihlo ulwe ukuthuthukisa imithetho yezobuchwepheshe. Umbango owesizwe nowenkululeko yomphakathi ulokhu uwumnyombo oyinhloko wezokuhlola kanye nezilinganiso.

Isiphetho: Ukubaluleka Okuhlala Njalo Kukahulumeni Olinganiselayo

Isimiso sokuhlola nokulinganisela singaphezu nje kokuba isithakazelo somlando; siyisici esiphilayo esiye sazivumelanisa noshintsho lwezombangazwe, lwezenhlalo, nolwezobuchwepheshe olungaphezu kwamakhulu amabili. Injongo yaso .(ukuvimbela ukunqwabelana kwamandla anonya, ukukhuthaza ukuhlolwa, ukuvikela amalungelo abantu, nokuqinisekisa ukulandisa ngo-(ibalulekile namuhla njengokungathi kwakusengonyaka ka 1787). Nakuba lesi simiso sivame ukuwohloka, sithatha kancane, futhi singaphansi kokucindezelwa, okuklanywe ngokunembile. Njengoba uJames Madison wabhala, ukuba abantu bebeyizingelosi, bekungeke kube yimfuneko.” Ngenxa yokuthi abakho, isimo sokuhlola nokulinganisela nokulinganisela kusemqondweni, ukwazisa ukuqina, nokuvikela ubuqotho kwaso kuyimisebenzi ebalulekile kuzo zonke izizukulwane zaseMelika.