Isimiso sengozi ephindwe kabili siwukuvikela komthetho-sisekelo okuvikela abantu ukuba bangalingwa noma bajeziswe kaningi ngenxa yecala elifanayo. Sisekelwe eSichibiyelweni sesihlanu, lesisivikelo sivame ukubhekwa njengesisekelo senqubo yobugebengu. Nokho, imiphumela yaso idlulela ngalé kwenkantolo yobugebengu, ithonya ukuhlaziywa kwamalungelo abantu kanye namakhambi atholakalayo ezisulu zokucwaswa, ukuziphatha okubi kwamaphoyisa, namanye amalungelo. Ukuqonda ukuthi izingozi eziphindwe kabili ezinhlangothini namalungelo omphakathi zibalulekile kangakanani kudinga abameli, abameleli, abameleli, nabathathi-pastfish, i-milligations, i-millia.

Lesi sihloko sihlola izisekelo zezimfundiso zobungozi obuphindwe kabili, ukusebenzelana kwayo okungokwesiko neziphakamiso zomphakathi, kanye nokulinganiselwa okuwusizo okukubangelayo emakhambini amalungelo omphakathi. Sihlola futhi izimfundiso ezihlobene nangaphambi kokubekwa kwecala − njenge-pacatat ne-estopal eemplel (esebenza imisebenzi engokwesiko, futhi sixoxa ngokuvela kokuhlukile nemikhuba eguqula incazelo yanamuhla.

Isisekelo Somthetho - sisekelo Sokweqa Icala Okukabili

IsiHluzi sesihlanu soMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. sinikeza ukuthi akekho umuntu “ozobekwa ngaphansi kwecala elifanayo ukuze abekwe engozini yokuphila noma isitho.” Lemisho ivimbela uhulumeni ukuba aqule umuntu ngecala elifanayo lobugebengu ngemva kokulahlwa noma ukuvunyelwa, futhi ivimbela izijeziso eziningi ngenxa yecala elifanayo. Isivikelo sisebenza ekumangalelweni kombuso futhi, ngeSiphendu sezwe se-14, ukuqulwa kwecala.

Izingozi ezimbili zifeza izinjongo ezimbalwa eziyinhloko: ivimbela uhulumeni ekusebenziseni ingcebo yakhe ephakeme ekuhlukunyezeni omangalelwayo, ilondoloza ukuphela kwezahlulelo zobugebengu, futhi ivikela ubuqotho besimiso sabahluleli. Lamanani agxile kakhulu e-jurisprudence yaseMelika, futhi izinkantolo ziye zaphikelela zikholelwa ukuthi isivikelo kumelwe “sihlonishwe ngokuhloniphekile.” Kodwa ukuhlangana okuqondile kwalokho okuhlanganisa“ icala” nalapho kusengozini kuhlala kuyizihloko zokuphoqamba nokuchaza okuqhubekayo.

INkantolo Ephakeme iye yasungula ukuhlola okubili okukhulu kokunquma ukuthi amacala amabili ayafana yini. Ngaphansi kwe- ukuhlolwa komnqakathi (kuthathwe ku-“FLT:2] . United States] i-Tatburgr v.[], 284 U.S.9 [1932]), amacala amabili athathwa njengafanayo uma ngalinye lingadingi ubufakazi beqiniso lokuthi elinye alibudingi. Uvivinyo lwesibili, ngokuvamile lusetshenziswa ezicabeni ezilandelanayo, lubuza ukuthi ukumangalelwa kwesibili kungahilela ukuziphatha okufanayo nokuthi uhulumeni ungaziletha yini zonke izikhalo ezicaweni eziqhubekayo. Lokhu kuhlola kuveza ngokuqondile amalungelo abantu, lapho isenzakalo esisodwa sobugebengu singaveza khona ukuqulwa kobugebengu futhi siphakalele.

Ukuze ungene juqu ohlwini lwezinombolo eziphindwe kabili, bheka Cornell Legin Information Institute .

Ukuqhubeka Kwezigebengu: Umehluko Obucayi

Enye yezindlela ezibaluleke kakhulu − futhi ngokuvamile engaqondwa kahle − izimpawu zezingozi eziphindwe kabili emalungelweni omphakathi ukuthi isivikelo sisebenza kuphela ekwahlulelweni kobugebengu . Icala lomphakathi, ngisho nofuna isijeziso sokuziphatha okufanayo okwabangela ukumangalelwa kobugebengu, akubhekwa njengesesibili “ukuthatheka” ngezinjongo zomthetho-sisekelo. Lokhu kungenxa yokuthi amakhambi aklanyelwe ukukhokha izisulu nokuvimbela ukuziphatha okubi, hhayi ukujezisa abenzi bobubi ngendlela efanayo.

Nokho, umngcele phakathi kwesijeziso somphakathi nesezigebengu ungafiphaza. Kuyi-Hudson v. United States, 522 U.S. 93 [1997], iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuthi isijeziso sesizwe singabhekwa njengesijeziso sengozi ephindwe kabili uma “isijeziso esisemfanekisweni futhi sisebenza ngendlela yokuyinikeza igebengu.” Izinkantolo eziphansi ziye zasebenzisa lokhu kuhlola ukuze zilahlekelwe isijeziso somphakathi, izijeziso zendelelo zesizwe, futhi ngisho nezijeziso ezithile zezomthetho. Emongweni yesizwe, ukujeziswa ngezingozi zomphakathi kuye kwabekelwa inseleleka ezingeni eziphindwe kabili uma ummangalelwa kakade esejeziswe ngokuphaza ngecala ngenxa yesenzo esifanayo. Inkantolo ngokuvamile ilahla le mpikiswano, kodwa iyaqhubeka nokukhishwa kwendaba yezehlakalo.

Olunye umehluko obucayi uhlanganisa umqondo wesijeziso esihlukene.” Isilinganiso esiphindwe kabili sengozi sivimbela izijeziso zecala lobugebengu elifanayo, kodwa asivaleli ukulahlwa kwecala lomthetho elilandelwa isahlulelo somphakathi (hhayi noma elihlanganisa ukujeziswa. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yakwenza kwacaca ukuthi isijeziso somphakathi nesijeziso sobugebengu kuyisijeziso esihlukene, futhi umuntu angachayeka kokubili ngenxa yesenzo esifanayo. Ngokwesibonelo, iphoyisa elikhululekile ekuhlaseleni kwecala enkantolo yobugebengu lingase libhekane necala lomphakathi ngaphansi kweRhovisi egabeni lika 1983 ngenxa yempoqo, futhi isahlulelo somphakathi asibhekwa njengesijeziso sesibili ngaphansi kwengozi ephindwe kabili.

Ukuze baqonde ukuhlangana kwemijeziso yobugebengu neyomphakathi, abafundi bangabheka kuMnyango woMahluleli wase-U.S. wokwahlukanisa kwabahlali , ngokuvamile osingatha amacala ahilela ukuqulwa kwamacala.

Ithonya Le - jephardy Ekabili Ekwehliswa Kwamalungelo Omphakathi

Izinkulumo ezilandelanayo kanye nesithi “Icala”

Uma i-palmentactive amacala amaningi amacala asemthethweni e-odol amacala ahlukene aqulwe ngesehlakalo esifanayo, izinkantolo kumelwe zinqume ukuthi isenzo sesibili sivinjelwe ngengozi ephindwe kabili noma yizimfundiso ezihlobene. Nakuba u-pactical translation digital ngokwayo engasebenzi ngokuqondile ekumangalelweni okulandelanayo kwe-paljconcil, ukucabanga kwayo ngokuvamile kuthonya izinqumo zokuthi ushicilelwe. Lokhu kuveza isisekelo esiqinile sokuthi iSigaxa esiphethe asifanele sivunyelwe ukuhlukanisa inqubo yempi.

Kumongo we-inverdibrive, izingozi ezimbili zingabangela umngcele oqonde kakhulu. Ake sithi ummangalelwa ukhululiwe ekukhwabaniseni ngecala ngokuphathelene nokwephulwa kwamalungelo omphakathi (ngokwesibonelo, icebo lokuphika izindlu ngesisekelo sohlanga). Ukuvala isigwebo akulona isigwebo secala sesizwe esilandelanayo ngenxa yomonakalo ngaphansi koMthetho weFair Housesmail Act, ngoba ukuveza imvume yomphakathi kubhekwa njengokuhlukile. Nokho, uma uhulumeni ezama ukuletha ukumangalela ubugebengu obubili ngenxa yecala elingaphansi komthetho ofanayo, izingozi ezimbili zingasebenza futhi ngokunokwenzeka zivimbele icala lesibili. Ukuqonda “icala elilo elilo lilandelayo" ukulingwa ngaphansi [[FLT:] uVatburgrburg [5] kubaluleke kakhulu kubashushicishisi nabameli ezimweni ezinjalo.

Izimfundiso Zokuqala Njengezimfundiso Zangaphakathi

Nakuba izingozi eziphindwe kabili zibusa amacala obugebengu, isimiso somthetho sisebenzisa izimfundiso ezimbili eziwuphawu lokuvimbela ukuphindaphinda: res jucata (i-pallain yandulela) kanye ne-colletal estoppel (i-preclusion). Lezimfundiso zivame ukubizwa ekwahluleleni amalungelo omphakathi ukuze zisho ukuthi kungenzeka ukuthi zazikhona [1] kodwa zazingenjalo [1] ukukhuliswa ekuqaleni, noma ukuvinjelwa amaqiniso anqunyiwe kakade.

  • I-Res jucata: Uma isahlulelo sokugcina singeniswe ngenzuzo esenzweni somphakathi, amaqembu afanayo (noma ama-print awo) angenzeki ukuba anikeze elinye icala elisekelwe ekuthengiseni okufanayo noma kuchungechunge lwentengiselwano. Lomthetho ukhuthaza abachazi ukuba baqinise zonke iziphakamiso ezivela esenzekeni esisodwa, ngisho noma ezinye iziphakamiso zisekelwe ezinkolelweni ezihlukene zomthetho.
  • [I-CParaori estoppel: Ngisho noma ukuzisholo kuhlukile, iqiniso noma impikiswano eyabekwa futhi yanqunywa ngokomthetho kusenzweni akunakubekwa futhi esuthwini lamuva phakathi kwamaqembu afanayo. Lemfundiso ivame ukusetshenziswa ukubopha abamangalelwa ekutholeni okuvela kususelwa egebengwini elingaphambili eliqhubekeka", ngokwesibonelo, ukusekela kwempoqo eqiniswe kakhulu kungasetshenziselwa ukumisa icala elungeni lomphakathi elilandelayo.

Lezi zimfundiso ziphelelisa umgomo ophindwe kabili wengozi yokugcina kodwa zingadala izicupho kubantu abangaqaphile. Ngokwesibonelo, ummangali ofaka inkantolo yamalungelo esizwe futhi alahlekelwe yilokho kulungile angase avinjelwe ekuletheni kamuva i-Cult 1983, ngisho noma izinkantolo zikahulumeni bezinganikeza i-Fortum. Ngakho ama-Attorney kumelwe ahlele icebo lawo lokuzihlela ngokucophelela, ecabangela ukuthi inkantolo okungena kuyo futhi afake zonke izikhalo ezikhona ekumangalelweni okukodwa.

Ithonya Ekwelapheni Okutholakala Kubantu Abayimigunyathi

Izingozi ezimbili zithonya amakhambi ezicini ezilwela amalungelo omphakathi ngezindlela ezimbili eziyinhloko: ngokulinganisela ikhono likahulumeni lokufuna isijeziso esiningi, nangokuthuthukisa ukutholakala kokukhululeka okungalawuleki ngemva kokuba icala lobugebengu seliphendulile.

Umonakalo Obangelwa Ukujeziswa Nezijeziso Eziningi

Njengoba kuphawuliwe ngaphambili, ukujezisa isijeziso sesudi yomphakathi ngokuvamile akubhekwa “ukujezisa” ngezinjongo eziphindwe kabili. Nokho, lapho uhulumeni ngokwakhe eletha isenzo sokuphoqelela ukunikeza usizo olufuna usizo olungcono. Okufana nesijeziso somphakathi ngaphansi kwe-Manga Acts / umbuzo uba yinkimbinkimbi kakhulu. [[FLT: 0] United States v. Halper, 490 U.S. 435 (199), iNkakhulu leNkantolo isikisela ukuthi isigwebo sesizwe singaphula izingozi eziphindwe kabili uma sikhona. [[FLT:] [FLT] [FLT]] [FLT] [FLT] [3]

Kumalungelo omphakathi, umphumela ongokoqobo uwukuthi ummangalelwa oseye wavunyelwa ngokwezenzo zobugebengu (isibonelo, ngenkokhelo) angase aphikise ngokuthi umklomelo olandelayo wesijeziso sesijeziso selungelo lomphakathi ufana nokulingana. Izinkantolo ngokuvamile ziye zakwenqaba lokhu uma ummangalelwa eyisigebengu engumuntu, ngoba le nhlekelele ephindwe kabili isebenza kuphela esinyatheloni sikahulumeni. Noma kunjalo, ezinye izinkantolo zikahulumeni ziye zasebenzisa isivikelo semithetho noma izimiso ezifanele zokukhipha noma ukunciphisa imiklobolo lapho ummangalelwa esethole isijeziso sobugebengu esiqinile kakade.

Ukukhululeka Okungalawuleki Nemithetho Engavunyelwanga

Enye indawo ebalulekile i-injuncive kukhululeka ngemva kwecala lobugebengu. Uma ummangalelwa wobugebengu ephumela ekumangalelweni, uhulumeni angafuna umyalo kahulumeni wokuvimbela ukuphulwa kwemithetho esikhathini esizayo (ngokwesibonelo), umyalo wenkantolo onqabela umnini-famu ukuba angahlanganyeli emikhubeni yokukhipha ubugebengu. Ingozi ephindwe kabili ayikuvimbeli ukuyalwa okunjalo ngenxa yokuthi akuvinjelwa, akukhutsheli. Ngokufanayo, umthetho ogunyaziwe elungelweni lokulwela amalungelo omphakathi ungaphoqa izimpawu eziqhubekayo futhi ubike izimfuneko ngisho nangemva kokuba icala lobugebengu livaliwe, uma nje lo mthetho ungasibekeli isijeziso esengeziwe ngenxa yokuziphatha okufanayo.

Amakhambi amalungelo omphakathi avame ukuhlanganisa izindleko zabameli, ukulimala okungaqondile, nokukhululeka. Akukho nalinye kulezi elibhekwa njengesijeziso, ngakho alikho isilinganiso esiphindwe kabili sengozi. Lokhu kusho ukuthi ngisho nomphathi othola izingozi zokuzisholo kuphela angathola isimemezelo sokwahlulela sokuthi ilungelo lomthetho-sisekelo liyephulwa, elingasetshenziswa njengesiqu sesikhathi esizayo noma inguquko yenqubo.

Izinkulumo Ezihlukile Nezincazelo Ezingokomthetho Ezihunyushwayo

“ UMbusi Ophakeme Ongahanjisi” Ohlukile

Enye yezizathu eziphikisana kakhulu ezibangela ukulahlekelwa kabili yimfundiso “yombusi” ehlukene. Ngaphansi kwalendlela, ohulumeni ababili (isinye, i-United States kanye nesifundazwe) bangamangalela umuntu ngecala elifanayo ngaphandle kokwephula izingozi eziphindwe kabili, ngoba umbusi ngamunye unesithakazelo esizimele sokumisa imithetho yakhe siqu. Lemfundiso isebenza ngokufanayo ezicaleni zamalungelo omphakathi: umuntu angamangalelwa enkantolo yesifunda ngecala lobugebengu benzondo futhi abe senkantolo kahulumeni ngenxa yokwephula imithetho yezimiso zomphakathi, uma nje imithetho ichaza ukwahlukana kwemithetho.

Ukuzimela okuzimele kuye kwagxekwa njengokululaza isivikelo sezingozi eziphindwe kabili, kodwa kuhlala kulungile. Ngo-2019, iNkantolo Ephakeme yaqinisekisa imfundiso [ku-] ugcuignhlo v. iUnited States, 139. S. 1960. (2029), iphethe ukuthi isimiso sokwethakatha imingcele ehlangene sisekelwe kakhulu emlandweni wesizwe nasekwakheni isakhiwo. Lokhu kusho ukuthi imvume kahulumeni yokuvala icala elungelweni lomphakathi ayibambi ukumangalelwa kwezehlakalo olufanayo (noma umthetho). Imiphumela ewusizo ihlanganisa ukuvalwa kwemisebe elikhipha imithombo yengcebo ephikisanayo nokwakha izivumelwano eziphikisanayo.

Lapho “Uthango ” Uphela]

Enye impikiswano elungisayo iphuzu lapho izingozi zihlangana khona neselelesi. Icala labahluleli, lifakwa khona lapho ijaji lifungela ukuqulwa kwecala; ukuqulwa kwecala ebhentshi, uma ufakazi wokuqala efukwa. Emacaleni amalungelo omphakathi ahilela ukuqulwa kwecala eliyinkimbinkimbi, isikhathi sokuhlangana singanquma ukuthi inkantolo ixoshiwe noma ayinalubandlululo. Ngokwesibonelo, uma inkantolo ikhipha icala lobugebengu ngaphambi kokuba lifakelwe engozini, uhulumeni ungakhululeka ukulahla ummangalelwa. Kodwa ngemva kokunamathela, ukuxoshwa (ngaphandle kokubekwa icala eliqinile) kungasebenza njengommangalelwa oqhubekelelisayo onecala onecala elingenacala.

Izinqumo zamuva nje zixabane nalokho okuhlanganisa “ukulahlwa" ngokwesibonelo, uma ijaji liboshelwe icala elihambisana necala elincane futhi inkantolo ikhetha ukungalithathi futhi. Isinqumo esinjalo singathinta amasudi omphakathi alandelayo, ngoba isinqumo sobugebengu (noma ukuntula) singaba nemiphumela encishisiwe engaphansi kwamaqiniso asobala.

Ukusebenzelana Nemithetho Yamalungelo Omphakathi

Izindaba eziyingozi ezimbili zivele futhi ngaphansi kwemithetho ethile yamalungelo omphakathi kahulumeni. Ngokwesibonelo, ngaphansi kweSigaba 242 seSihlokwana 18, esiphula umthetho ngamabomu ukuncishwa amalungelo ngaphansi kombala womthetho, ummangalelwa okhululwe ngecala lomthetho elingokomthetho lokuziphatha okufanayo angase abekwe icala likahulumeni. Ngokufanayo, isenzo samalungelo omphakathi ngaphansi kwe-Cuartic 1983 asivinjelwanga ukuvunyelwa kwecala likahulumeni langaphambili noma ukulahlwa kwecala. Nokho, umphumela owenziwa ngamabomu wecala esutweni lomphakathi ulinganiselwe ngokuncishwa yi-enerral ehpective: uma impikiswano eyiqiniso ingabekwa igwegwegwesi futhi inqunywe ngokomthetho wobugebengu, ukuthi isinqumo singabopha icala lomphakathi.

Ukuhlaziywa okuphelele kwezingozi eziphindwe kabili emongweni wamalungelo omphakathi kungatholakala ku- i-ABA’s Human Rights Magazine [, ekhipha izihloko ngezikhathi ezithile mayelana nokungqubana kwenqubo yobugebengu namalungelo omphakathi.

Ukukhathalela Okungokoqobo Amalungelo Omphakathi Ayizinto Ezikhangayo

Njengoba becabangela ubunkimbinkimbi bezimfundiso eziyingozi eziphindwe kabili nezingaqondakali, abenzi bamalungelo omphakathi kumelwe basebenzise indlela efanelekile yokusingatha izindaba. Ngezansi kucatshangelwa okuyinhloko:

Ukuhlola Izenzakalo Ezizayo

  • Thola ukuthi ummangalelwa wobugebengu uye waquliswa yini noma ulindele ukuziphatha okufanayo okuyisisekelo.
  • Hlola umphumela: ukulahlwa, ukuvunyelwa, noma ukuxoshwa.
  • Bheka ukuthi ikuphi okuyiqiniso okwatholwa ngokuqondile ecaleni lobugebengu; lokhu kungase kusetshenziswe ngokucasulayo esuthwini yomphakathi ngaphansi kokuhlola i - eestol.

Khetha Inkundla Ngokuhlakanipha

  • Uma ummangalelwa ekwazi ukukhetha phakathi kwenkantolo kahulumeni nekahulumeni, cabangela imithetho yokuzinqumela yesifunda ngasinye. Ezinye izifundazwe zineziphakamiso zokuyekelela kakhulu zokungavumelani nemithetho ehlukaniswayo kunamankantolo kahulumeni.
  • Hlaziya ukuthi ummangalelwa angase aphikise ngokuphikisana okumbaxa - mbili ukuze athethelele ukuquliswa kwecala ngezikhathi eziningi, bese uhlela icala lomphakathi ngokufanelekile.

Hlakulela Ukukhononda

  • Hlanganisa zonke izinkulumo ezingenzeka zikahulumeni nohulumeni ezivela ebhizinisini elifanayo ukuze ugweme izinsimbi zokwahlulela.
  • Uma kudingekile, sekela ezinye izinkolelo - mbono zokuthi unecala (isimo, amandla aphakeme ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo sesine nokuhlasela ngaphansi komthetho wombuso).

Hlola Ukudalulwa Kwezijeziso

  • Kulungele ukuba ummangalelwa aphikise ngokuthi ukujeziswa kufana nezijeziso zobugebengu.
  • Cabangela ukucela ukuba noma iliphi isijeziso somonakalo sincishiswe uma ummangalelwa esekhokhile kakade amafa ecala noma ukukhokha isijeziso.

Sebenzisa Icala Ngokunganaki

  • Inkolelo yangaphambi kobugebengu ingavezwa njengobufakazi bamaqiniso ayisisekelo (uma inkolelo yayingeyokuziphatha okufana nokushiwo uhulumeni).
  • Uma ummangalelwa ekhululiwe, uhulumeni ngeke akwazi ukuwakhipha amacala afanayo obugebengu, kodwa ummangalelwa kahulumeni akaboshiwe ummangalelwa ngoba umthwalo wobufakazi uphansi.

Odokotela, iFederal Mission of Civil Procedie inikeza uhlelo lweziqu zokujoyina nokuzibopha, futhi ukuhlala kuseNkantolo Ephakeme kunezinqumo eziphindwe kabili zengozi kubalulekile.

Isiphetho

Izingozi ezimbili zihlala ziyisivikelo esiyisisekelo esimisweni somthetho waseMelika, kodwa ukufinyelela kwayo ekwahlulelweni amalungelo omphakathi kuyaqondwa futhi ngokuvamile kuyaqondwa. Nakuba lesi sisho ngokwaso sisebenza kuphela ezimpikiswaneni zobugebengu, izimiso zaso zokugcina nokulunga zisebenza ngezimfundiso ezilandelanayo njenge jucata ne-estoteral estoppel. Lezi zimfundiso zinganika amandla amalungelo omphakathi (ngokunikeza ithonya eliphelele ezinkolelweni zobugebengu) noma ziwalinganisela (ngeziphakamiso ezifanele zilethwe ekuqaleni).

Ukuhlukana okuzimele okuzimele, izincazelo ezihlukanisayo zalokho okuhlanganisa “icala elifanayo,” nomehluko oqhubekayo phakathi kwesijeziso somphakathi nesobugebengu konke kuqinisekisa ukuthi izingozi eziphindwe kabili ziyohlala ziyingxenye enamandla yomthetho. Kubenzi bamalungelo omphakathi, ukuqondwa okujulile kwalezizindaba akuyona nje imfundo kuphela, kubalulekile ekukhiqizeni amasu aphumelelayo okulungisa nokuvikela izisulu ngokuphula umthetho. Njengoba izinkantolo ziqhubeka zichaza imingcele yengozi ephindwe kabili, ukugcinwa phakathi kokulandisa kwecala lobugebengu nokulungisa komphakathi kuyomisa ikusasa lokugcinwa kwamalungelo eUnited States.